speed and bravery. Some have slain lions without any armor, which is sometimes done in the East at the present day. The implements of hunting were usually the same with those of war; viz., the bow; 7, the arrow; (hence the hunter Ishmael was called an archer, Gen. 21: 20;) also, n, a spear or lance;, a javelin ; , a sword. Hunters made use of various arts to secure their object. They employed nets, r,, in which lions were taken, Ezek. 19: 8; likewise gins, p, snares, D, E, and pitfals, , which were excavated especially for lions, in such a way, that there was an elevation of solid ground in the centre. In this elevation a pole was fastened, and a lamb was confined to the pole. The lion excited by the prospect of a victim, rushed upon the lamb, but plunged headlong through the light covering, which concealed the intervening pitfal, Ezek. 19: 4. Birds were taken in snares or gins. These instruments and modes of warfare are used tropically, to indicate the wiles of an adversary, great danger, or impending destruction, Ps. 9: 16. 57: 6. 94: 13. 119: 85. Prov. 26: 27. (s. 24: 17. 42: 22. Jer. 5: 27. 6: 21. 18: 22. 48: 44. Luke 21: 35. Rom. 11: 9. Death is represented as a hunter, armed with his net, javelin, or sting, with which he takes and slays men, Ps. 91: 3. Hos. 13: 14. 1 Cor. 15: 55.

NOTE. For information, respecting other animals, mentioned in the Bible, see Bochart's Hierozoicon, Rosenmüller's edition, published at Leipsic 1793-1796, and Oedmann's Sammlungen aus Naturkunde zur Erklärung der heiligen Schrift, 1786-96.

§ 53. OF ROBBERIES, COMMITTED ON TRAVELlers.

Probably from the hunting of wild beasts, the Nomades turned their attention to the plundering of travellers; an occupation, which they follow to this day in the vast deserts, nearly in the same way that pirates practise a similar vocation on the ocean. Their skill at plundering was predicted of Ishmael and his posterity, and they have ever remarkably fulfilled the prediction, Gen. 16:12. Still they do not surpass many others of the Nomadic tribes; who lie hid behind hills of sand, and wait for travellers, and then plunder them to the skin, comp. Jer. 3: 2. They do not slay any one, unless some one or a number of their own party per

§ 54. IMPORTANCE OF AGRICULTURE.

63

ishes first. Having robbed them of all they possess, they commonly return a garment to the person plundered, in order that they may conceal their nakedness. They also permit the countrymen or friends of the captives, to redeem them. All the Nomades are polite and hospitable. They receive strangers into their tents, and, without any expectation of a return, exhibit to them every office of kindness. But they are different men, if they meet strangers in the wilderness. There are now, and there always have been Nomades, who have disapproved of the proceedings, of which we have spoken. Such were Abraham, Isaac, Jacob, and the Israelites; some of whom, however, were at times guilty of plundering, Judg. 9: 25. Mic. 2: 8.

CHAPTER IV.

ON AGRICULTURE

§ 54. ITS VALUE AND IMPORtance.

In the primitive ages of the world, agriculture, as well as the keeping of flocks, was a principal employment among men, Gen. 2: 15. 3: 17-19. 4: 2. It is an art which has ever been a prominent source, both of the necessaries and the conveniences of life. Those nations, which practised it at an early period, learnt its value, not only from their own experience, but also from observing the condition of the neighboring countries, that were destitute of a knowledge of it, see Xenophon's Ozovou. L. V. § 1-20. p. 299-355. (T. IV. ed. Thieme.) Impressed with the importance of agriculture, Noah, after he had escaped from the deluge, once more bestowed upon it his attention; and there were some of the Nomades, who were far from neglecting it, Gen. 26: 12-14. 25: 34. 37: 7. Job 1: 3.

Those states and nations, especially Babylon and Egypt, which made the cultivation of the soil their chief business, arose in a short period to wealth and power. To these communities just

mentioned, which excelled in this particular all the others of antiquity, may be added that of the Hebrews, who learned the value of the art while remaining in Egypt, and ever after that time were famous for their industry in the cultivation of the earth.

§ 55. LAWS OF MOSES IN REGARD TO Agriculture.

I. Moses, following the example of the Egyptians, made agriculture the basis of the state. He, accordingly, apportioned to every citizen a certain quantity of land, and gave him the right of tilling it himself and of transmitting it to his heirs. The person, who had thus come into possession, could not alienate the property for any longer period than the year of the coming jubilee; a regulation, which prevented the rich from coming into possession of large tracts of land, and then leasing them out in small parcels to the poor; a practice which anciently prevailed, and does to this day, in the East. II. It was another law of Moses, that the vender of a piece of land, or his nearest relative, had a right to redeem the land sold, whenever they chose, by paying the amount of profits up to the year of jubilee, Ruth 4: 4. Jer. 32: 7. III. Another law enacted by Moses on this subject, was, that the Hebrews, as was the case among the Egyptians after the time of Joseph, Gen. 37: 18 et seq. should pay a tax of two tenths of their income unto God, whose servants they were to consider themselves, and whom they were to obey as their king, Lev. 27: 30. Deut. 12: 17-19. 14: 22-29. comp. Gen. 28: 22. IV. The custom of marking the boundaries of lands by stones, although it prevailed a long time before, Job 24: 2, was confirmed and perpetuated, in the time of Moses, by an express law; and a curse was pronounced against him, who without authority removed them.

These regulations having been made in respect to the tenure, incumbrances, etc. of landed property, Joshua divided the whole country, which he had occupied, first, among the respective tribes, and then, among individual Hebrews, running it out with the aid of a measuring-line, Josh. 17: 5, 14. comp. Amos 7: 17. Mic. 2: 5. Ps. 78: 55. Ezek. 40: 3. The word a line, is accordingly used by a figure of speech for the heritage itself, Ps. 11: 6. Josh. 17: 5, 14.

19: 9.

Though Moses was the friend of the agriculturist, he by no means discouraged the keeper of the flock.

§ 57. MEANS OF INCREASING FERTILITY.

65

§ 56. ESTIMATION IN WHICH AGRICULTURE WAS HELD.

The occupation of the husbandman was held in honor, not only for the profits which it brought, but from the circumstance, that it was supported and protected by the fundamental laws of the state. All who were not set apart for religious duties, such as the priests and the Levites, whether inhabitants of the country, or of towns and cities, were considered by the laws, and were in fact agriculturists. The rich and the noble, it is true, in the cultivation of the soil, did not always put themselves on a level with their servants, but none were so rich or so noble, as to disdain to put their hand to the plough, 1 Sam. 11: 7. 1 Kings 19: 19. comp. 2 Chron. 26: 10. The priests and Levites were indeed engaged in other employments, yet they could not withhold their honor from an occupation, which supplied them with their income.

The esteem in which agriculture was held, diminished as luxury increased; but it never wholly came to an end. Even after the captivity, when many of the Jews had become merchants and mechanics, the esteem and honor attached to this occupation still continued, especially under the dynasty of the Persians, who were agriculturists from motives of religion.

§ 57. MEANS OF INCREASING FERTILITY.

The soil of Palestine is very fruitful, if the dews and vernal and autumnal rains are not withheld. The country, in opposition to Egypt, is eulogized for its rains in Deut. 11: 10. The Hebrews, notwithstanding the richness of the soil, endeavored to increase its fertility in various ways. They not only divested it of stones, but watered it by means of canals,, communicating with the rivers or brooks; and thereby imparted to their fields the richness of gardens, Ps. 1: 3. 65: 10. Prov. 21: 1. Is. 30: 25. 32: 2, 20. Hos. 12: 11. Springs, therefore, fountains, and rivulets, were held in as much honor and worth by husbandmen as by shepherds, Josh. 15: 9. Judg. 1: 15; and we accordingly find, that the land of Canaan was extolled for those fountains of was, of which Egypt was destitute. The soil was enriched also, in addition to the method

the

just mentioned, by means of ashes; to which the straw, in, stubble, p, the husks, 7, the brambles and grass, that overspread the land during the sabbatical year, were reduced by fire. The burning over the surface of the land had also another good effect, viz. that of destroying the seeds of the noxious herbs, Is. 7: 23. 32: 13. Prov. 24: 31. Finally, the soil was manured with dung, Ps. 83: 10. 2 Kings 9: 37. Is. 25: 10. Jer. 8: 2. 9: 22. 16: 4. 25: 33. Luke 14: 34, 35.

§ 58. DIFFERENT KINDS OF GRAIN.

The Hebrew word, which is translated variously by the English words, grain, corn, etc. is of general signification, and comprehends in itself different kinds of grain and pulse, such as wheat,

beans, b; lentils, ; meadow-cumin, j; pepperwort,

שׂרָה ,barley ;וּחַן ,wall-barley ; כִּתְּמֶת,spelt ; נִסְטָן ,millet ;חָטָה

-to these may be added va ; פִּשְׁתֵּי עֵץ ,cotton ; פִּשְׁתֶּה ,fax ; קָצַח

rious species of the cucumber, and perhaps rice, ni, Is. 28: 25. Rye and oats do not grow in the warmer climates, but their place is, in a manner, supplied by barley. Barley, mixed with broken straw, affords the fodder for beasts of burden, which is called . Wheat,, which by way of eminence is also called 17, grew in Egypt in the time of Joseph, as it now does in Africa, on stalks or branches, ?, each one of which produced an ear, Gen. 41: 47. This sort of wheat does not flourish in Palestine; the wheat of Palestine is of a much better kind. Cotton, 72, grows not only on trees of a large size, which endure for a number of years, but also on shrubs, which are annually reproduced. It is enclosed in the nuts of the tree, if they may so be called from their resemblance to nuts. The nuts when they are ripe, fall off; they are then gathered and exposed to the sun, which causes them to increase to the size of an apple. When opened, they exhibit the cotton. There are a few seeds found in each of these nuts, which are sown again the following year. The cotton of the shrub, called yaz, Búocos, is celebrated for its whiteness.