Migration. king of Prussia's domains, who had great lakes in their districts, the fishery in them being a part of the revenue. In winter the fishery thereon is the most considerable under the ice, with nets spreading more than 200 or 300 fathoms, and they are often wound by screws and engines on account of their weight. All the people that were questioned made affidavits upon oath before the magistrates. First, The mother of the countess Lehndorf said, that she had seen a bundle of swallows brought from the Frishe-Haff (a lake communicating with the Baltic at Pillaw), which, when brought into a moderately warm room, revived and fluttered about. Secondly, Count Schileben gave an instrument on stamped paper, importing, that by fishing on the lake belonging to his estate of Gerdauen in winter, he saw several swallows caught in the net, one of which he took up in his hand, brought it into a warm room, where it lay about an hour, when it began to stir, and half an hour after, it flew about in the room. Thirdly, Farmer-general (Amtman) Witkouski made affidavit, that, in the year 1740, three swallows were brought up with the net in the great pond at Didlacken; in the year 1741, he got two swallows from another part of the pond, and took them home (they being all caught in his presence); after an hour's space they revived all in a warm room, fluttered about, and died in three hours after. Fourthly, Amtman Bonke says, that having had the estate of Kleskow in farm, he had seen nine swallows brought up in the net from under the ice, all which he took into a warm room, where he distinctly observed how they gradually revived; but a few hours after they all died. Another time his people got likewise some swallows in a net, but he ordered them to be again thrown into the water. Fifthly, Andrew Rutta, a master fisherman at Oletsko, made affidavit, in 1747, that 22 years ago, two swallows were taken up by him in a net, under the ice, and, being brought into a warm room, they flew about. Sixthly, Jacob Kosiulo, a master fisherman at Stradauen made affidavit, that, in 1736, he brought up in winter, in a net, from under the ice of the lake at Raski, a seemingly dead swallow, which revived in half an hour's time in a warm room; and he saw, in a quarter of an hour after, the bird grow weaker, and soon after dying. Seventhly, I can reckon myself (says our author) among the eye-witnesses of this paradox of natural history. In the year 1735, being a little boy, I saw several swallows brought in winter by the fishermen from the river Vistula to my father's house; where two of them were brought into a warm room, revived, and flew about. I saw them several times settling on the warm stove (which the northern nations have in their rooms); and I recollect well, that the same forenoon they died, and I had them, when dead, in my hand. In the year 1754, after the death of my uncle Godefroy Wolf, captain in the Polish regiment of foot guards, being myself one of his heirs, I administered for my co-heirs several estates called the Starosty of Dischau, in Polish Prussia, which my late uncle farmed under the king. In January, the lake of Lybshaw, belonging to these estates, being covered with ice, I ordered the fishermen to fish therein, and in my presence several swallows were taken, which the fishermen threw in again; but one I took up myself, brought it home, which was five

miles from thence, and it revived, but died about an Migration hour after its reviving.

"These are facts attested by people of the highest quality, by some in public offices, and by others who, though of a low rank, however, made these affidavits upon oath. It is impossible to suppose indiscriminately that they were prompted, by views of interest, to assert as a fact a thing which had no truth in it. It is therefore highly probable, or rather incontestably true, that swallows retire in the northern countries, during winter, into the water, and stay there in a torpid state till the return of warmth revives them again in spring. The question therefore, I believe, ought for the future to be thus stated: The swallows in Spain, Italy, France, and perhaps some from England, remove to warmer climates; some English ones, and some in Germany and other mild countries, retire into clefts and holes in rocks, and remain there in a torpid state. In the colder northern countries the swallows immerse in the sea, in lakes, and rivers; and remain in a torpid state, under ice, during winter. There are still some objections to this latter assertion, which we must remove. It is said, Why do not rapacious fish, and aquatic quadrupeds and birds, devour these swallows? The answer is obvious, swallows choose only such places in the water for their winter retreat as are near reeds and rushes; so that sinking down there between them and their roots, they are by them secured against the rapaciousness of their enemies. But others object, Why are not these birds caught in such fresh waters as are continually harassed by nete? I believe the same answer which has been made to the first objection will serve for this likewise. Fishermen take care to keep off with their nets from places filled with reeds and rushes, for fear of entangling and tearing their net; and thus the situation of swallows under water, is the reason that they are seldom disturbed in their silent winter retreats. What confirms this opinion still more is, that swallows were never caught in Prussia according to the abovementioned affidavits, but with those parts of the net which passed near to the reeds and rushes; and sometimes the swallows were yet fastened with their feet to a reed, when they were drawn up by the net. As to the argument taken from their being so long under water without corruption, I believe there is a real difference between animals suffocated in water and animals being torpid therein. We have examples of things being a long time under water; to which we may add the intense cold of these northern regions, which preserves them. Who would have thought that snails and polypes might be dissected, and could reproduce the parts severed from their bodies, if it was not a fact? Natural history ought to be studied as a collection of facts, not as the history of our guesses or opinions. Nature varies in an infinite manner; and Providence has diversified the instinct of animals and their economy, and adapted it to the various seasons and climates."

With Mr Kalm's concluding observations we hearti- This quesly concur. Natural history ought to be studied as a tion ought collection of facts; and it was from this very notion to be dethat we have stated the above-mentioned opinions so termined, not by reafully, and brought together the facts which the best soning, but advocates for each opinion have judged most proper for by experi supporting ment

none of the three opinions is supported by such evi- Migration. dence as to satisfy the mind completely. Opinions respecting events which happen every year ought to be confirmed by a great number of observations, and not by a few instances divested of almost all their concomitant circumstances, Can no better proofs be brought to prove the migration of swallows than those of Adanson and Sir Charler Wager, or the circumstances mentioned by Mr White and Mr Laskey respecting their disappearing? We ought not merely to know that some swallows have taken a southerly flight in autumn, that some have been found at a great distance from land in the spring, or in harvest; but we ought to know to what countries they actually retire. Before we can rest satisfied, too, that it is a general fact that swallows remain in a torpid state during winter, either in caverns or in the bottom of lakes, &c. we must have more proofs; we must know what species of swallows they are said to be, in what countries this event takes place, and several other circumstances of the same kind.

ration. supporting them. We are sensible of the great improbability of the third opinion, and know that many arguments have been used to prove its absurdity: such as these, The swallow is lighter than water, and therefore cannot sink; if it moults at all, it must moult under water during its torpid state, which is very improbable; there is no instance of land animals living so long under water without respiration. Many other arguments of the same sort have been advanced, and certainly afford a short way of deciding the question; but unless they were sufficient to prove the immersion of swallows a physical impossibility, they are of no force when opposed to the evidence of testimony, if there be no cause to suspect the witnesses of inaccuracy or design. The true way to refute such an opinion is by accurate observation and experiment. We have not heard of any accurate inquiries being made by philosophers in those northern countries where swallows are said to pass the winter under water. The count de Buffon, indeed, shut up some swallows in an ice-house by way of experiment, which died in a few days; but as he does not tell us what precautions he took to make the experiment succeed, it is not entitled to any attention.

tle.

Mr John Hunter made a very judicious experiment on the banks of the Thames, which is describn's Ma- ed by a correspondent in the Gentleman's Magazine, who asserts that he had it from Mr Hunter him#y 1796. self.

cine,

12

One year in the month of September, he prepared a room, with every accommodation and convenience which he could contrive, to serve as a dormitory for swallows, if they were disposed to sleep in winter. He placed in the centre a large tub of water with twigs and reeds, Hun- &c. which reached to the bottom. In the corners of 's expe- the room he contrived artificial caverns and holes, into which they might retire; and he laid on the floor, or suspended in the air, different lengths of old wooden pipes, which had formerly been employed in conveying water through the streets, &c.

ent in

nious;

13

t not

cisive

th re

ect to

thern mates.

When the receptacle was rendered as complete as possible, he then engaged some watermen to take by night a large quantity of the swallows that hang upon the reeds in the Thames about the time of their departure. They brought him, in a hamper, a considerable number; and had so nicely hit the time of their capture, that on the very day following there were none to be seen.

He put the swallows into the room so prepared, where they continued to fly about, and occasionally perch on the twigs, &c. But not one ever retired into the water, the caverns, holes, or wooden pipes, or shewed the least disposition to grow torpid, &c. In this situation he let them remain till they all died but one. This appearing to retain some vigour, was set at liberty; when it mounted out of sight, and flew away. All the birds lay dead scattered about the room; but not one was found asleep or torpid, or had, if the correspondent remembers, so much as crept into any of the receptacles he had so provided.

This experiment was ingenious, and certainly does render the doctrine of immersion much more improbable; but it is not decisive; for it may still be urged by the advocates for that doctrine, as Mr Kalm has done, that it may only be in the colder countries where swallows retire into the water. We formerly said that

14

be done in

We cannot help being of opinion that much remains Many to be done in order properly to ascertain what becomes things yet of the swallows in Europe during winter. It would be remain to necessary, in the first place, to know accurately what order to are the countries in which swallows are found. 2. Do determine they remain visible the whole year? or, if they disap- this point. pear, at what season does this happen, and when do they appear again? 3. Do they ever appear while a strong north wind blows, or do they only come in great numbers with a south wind? We will endeavour to answer some of these questions in part; but must regret, that all the information on this subject which we have been able to cull from the best writers in natural history is very scanty; and we merely give it by way of specimen, hoping that future observations will render it more complete.

15

There are five species which visit Britain during the A few imsummer months; the common or chimney swallow, the portant martin, sand martin, swift, and goat-sucker. 1. The chimney swallow frequents almost every part of the old continent; being known (says Dr Latham) from Norway to the Cape of Good Hope on the one side, and from Kamtschatka to India and Japan on the other. It is also found in all parts of North America, and in several of the West Indian islands. In Europe it disappears during the winter months. It appears generally a little after the vernal equinox ; but rather earlier in the southern, and later in the northern latitudes. It adheres to the usual seasons with much regularity; for though the months of February and March should be uncommonly mild, and April and May remarkably cold, it never deviates from its ordinary time. In the cold spring of 1740 some appeared in France before the insects on which they feed had become numerous enough to support them, and great numbers died t. Buffon's In the mild and even warm spring of 1774 they ap- History of peared no earlier than usual. They remain in some Birds, warm countries the whole year. Kolben assures us vol. vi. that this is the case at the Cape of Good Hope; but p. 527(he says) they are more numerous in winter. Some birds of this species live, during winter, even in Europe; for example on the coast of Genoa, where they spend the night in the open country on the orange shrubs.

Natural

Migration.

2. The martins are also widely diffused through the old continent; but the countries where they reside or visit have not been marked by naturalists with much attention. 3. The sand martins are found in every part Ibid. 527. of Europe, and frequently spend the winter in Malta ‡. Two birds of this species were seen in Perigord in France, on the 27th December 1775, when there was || Ibid. 484. a southerly wind, attended with a little rain ||. 4. The swift visits the whole continent of Europe; has also been observed at the Cape of Good Hope, and in Carolina in North America. The goat suckers are not very common birds, yet are widely scattered. They are found in every country between Sweden and Africa: they are found also in India. In April the southwest wind brings them to Malta, and in autumn they repass in great numbers.

Transac

Linnæan

Society, vol. i

Mr Markwick of Catsfield, near Battle in Sussex, tions of the has drawn up an accurate table, expressing the day of the month on which the birds, commonly called migratory, appeared in spring, and disappeared in autumn, for 16 years, from 1768 to 1783 inclusive. The observations were made at Catsfield. From this table we sball extract the dates for five years, and add the very few observations which we have been able to collect respecting the time when the swallow appears and disappears in other countries.

We acknowledge it to be rather a curious than an im- Migration, portant inquiry; yet it is one which must be highly Miguel. gratifying to every mind that can admire the wisdom of the Great Architect of nature. The instinct of the swallow is indeed wonderful: it appears among us just at the time when insects become numerous; and it continues with us during the hot weather, in order to prevent them from multiplying too much. It disappears when these insects are no longer troublesome. It is never found in solitude; it is the friend of man, and always takes up its residence with us, that it may protect our houses and our streets from being annoyed with swarms of flies.

MIGRATION of Fishes. See CLUpea.

ST MIGUEL, or St MICHAEL, one of the Azore islands, situated in W. Long. 25. 45. N. Lat. 38. 10. This island appears to be entirely volcanic. The best account we have of it hath been published in the 68th volume of the Philosophical Transactions by Mr Francis Masson. According to him, the productions differ greatly from those of Madeira, insomuch that none of the trees of the latter are found here, except the faya : it has a nearer affinity to Europe than Africa The mountains are covered with the erica vulgaris, and an elegant evergreen shrub very like a phillyrea, which gives them a most beautiful appearance.

It is one of the principal and most fertile of the Azorian islands, lying nearly east and west. Its length is about 18 or 20 leagues; its breadth unequal, not exceeding five leagues, and in some places not more than two. It contains about 80,000 inhabitants.

Its capital, the city of Ponta del Guda, which contains about 12,000 inhabitants, is situated on the south side of the island, on a fine fertile plain country, pretty regularly built; the streets straight, and of a good breadth. It is supplied with good water, which is brought about the distance of three leagues from the neighbouring mountains. The churches and other religious edifices are elegant and well built for such an island. There is a large convent of Franciscan friars and one of the order of St Augustine, four convents for professed nuns, and three Ricolhimentos for young women and widows who are not professed. The vessels anchor in an open road; but it is not dangerous, as no wind can prevent their going to sea in case of stormy weather.

The country round the city is plain for several miles, well cultivated, and laid out with good taste into spacious fields, which are sown with wheat, barley," Indian corn, pulse, &c. and commonly produce annually two crops; for as soor as one is taken off, another is immediately sown in its place. The soil is remarkably gentle and easy to work, being for the most part composed of pulverized pumice stone. There are in the plains a number of pleasant country seats, with orchards of orange trees, which are esteemed the best in Europe.

The second town is Ribeira Grande, situated on the north side of the island, containing about as many inhabitants as the city; a large convent of Franciscan friars, and one of nuns. It gives title to a count, called the Conde Ribeira Grande, who first instituted linen and woollen manufactories in the island.

The third town is Villa Franca, on the south side of the island, about six leagues east of Ponta del Guda.

iguel. It has a convent of Franciscan friars and one of nuns, which contains about 300. Here, about half a mile from the shore, lies a small island (Ilhao), which is hollow in the middle, and contains a fine bason with only one entrance into it, fit to hold 50 sail of vessels secure from all weather; at present it wants cleaning out, as the winter rain washes down great quantities of earth into it, which has greatly diminished its depth. But vessels frequently anchor between this island and the main.

Besides these towns are several smaller, viz. Alagao, Agoa de Pao, Brelanha, Fanaes de Ajuda, and a number of hamlets, called lugars or places.

About four leagues north-east from Villa Franca, lies a place called the Furnas, being a round deep valley in the middle of the east part of the island, surrounded with high mountains, which, though steep, may be easily ascended on horseback by two roads. The valley is about five or six leagues in circuit. The face

of the mountains, which are very steep, is entirely covered with beautiful evergreens, viz. myrtles, laurels, a large species of bilberry called uva de serra, &c. and numberless rivulets of the purest water run down their sides. The valley below is well cultivated, producing wheat, Indian corn, flax, &c. The fields are planted round with a beautiful sort of poplars, which grow into pyramidal forms, and by their careless irregular disposition, together with multitude of rivulets, which run in all directions through the valley, a number of boiling fountains throwing up clouds of steam, a fine lake in the south-west part about two leagues round, compose a prospect the finest that can be imagined. In the bottom of the valley the roads are smooth and easy, there being no rocks, but a fine pulverized pumice stone that the earth is composed of.

There are numerous hot fountains in different parts of the valley, and also on the sides of the mountains but the most remarkable is that called the chaldeira, situated in the eastern part of the valley, on a small eminence by the side of a river, on which is a bason about 30 feet diameter, where the water continually boils with prodigious fury. A few yards distant from it is a cavern in the side of the bank, in which the water boils in a dreadful manner, throwing out a thick, muddy, unctuous water, several yards from its mouth with a hideous noise. In the middle of the river are several places where the water boils up so hot, that a person cannot dip his finger into it without being scalded; also along its banks are several apertures, out of which the steam rises to a considerable height, so hot that there is no approaching it with one's hand: in other places, a person would think that 100 smiths bellows were blowing altogether, and sulphureous steams issuing out in thousands of places; so that native sulphur is found in every chink, and the ground covered with it like hoar frost; even the bushes that happen to lie near these places are covered with pure brimstone, condensing from the steam that issues out of the ground, which in many places is covered over with a substance like burnt alum. In these small caverns from which the steam issues, the people often boil their yams.

Near these boiling fountains are several mineral springs; two in particular, whose waters have a very

strong quality, of an acid taste, and bitter to the Miguel. tongue.

About half a mile to the westward, and close by the river side, are several hot springs, which are used by sick people with great success. Also, on the side of a hill west of St Anne's church, are many others, with three bathing houses, which are most commonly used. These waters are very warm, although not boiling hot; but at the same place issue several streams of cold mineral water, by which they are tempered, according to every one's liking.

About a mile south of this place, and over a low ridge of hills lies a fine lake about two leagues in circumference, and very deep, the water thick, and of a greenish colour. At the north end is a plain piece of ground, where the sulphureous steams issue out in many places, attended with a surprising blowing noise. Our author could observe strong springs in the lake, but could not determine whether they were hot or cold: this lake seems to have no visible evacuation. The other springs immediately form a considerable river, called Ribeira Quente, which runs a course about two or three leagues, through a deep rent in the mountains, on each side of which are several places where the smoke issues out. It discharges itself into the sea on the south side, near which are some places where the water boils up at some distance in the sea.

This wonderful place had been taken little notice of until very lately: so little curiosity had the gentlemen of the island, that scarcely any of them had seen it, until of late some persons, afflicted with very virulent disorders, were persuaded to try its waters, and found immediate relief from them. Since that time it has become more and more frequented; several persons who had lost the use of their limbs by the dead' palsy have been cured; and also others who were troubled with eruptions on their bodies.

A clergyman, who was greatly afflicted with the gout, tried the said waters, and was in a short time perfectly cured, and has had no return of it since. When Mr Masson was there, several old gentlemen, who were quite worn out with the said disorder, were using the waters, and had rceived incredible benefit from them; in particular, an old gentleman about 60 years of age, who had been tormented with, that disorder more than 20 years, and often confined to his bed for six months together he had used these waters for about three weeks, had quite recovered the use of his limbs, and walked about in the greatest spirits imaginable. A friar also who had been troubled with the said disorder about 12 years and reduced to a cripple, by using them a short time was quite well, and went a-hunting every day.

There are several other hot springs in the island, particularly at Ribeira Grand; but they do not pessess the same virtues, at least not in so great a degree.

The east and west part of the island rises into high mountains; but the middle is low, interspersed with round conic hills, all of which have very recent marks of fire; all the parts below the surface consisting of melted lava lying very hollow.

Most of the mountains to the westward have their tops hollowed out like a punch bowl, and contain wa

ter.

put to death or banished all the nobility; by which Milan means the popular government was fully established ; and Torriano, under this pretence, ruled every thing as he pleased. He was, however, soon opposed by one Francisco Sepri, who formed a great party, pretending to deliver the city from Torriano's haughtiness and cruelty. But while the two parties were collecting their forces against each other, Cardinal Ubaldini was projecting the destruction of both, by means of his favourite Otho. This prelate had for some time borne an implacable hatred to Torriano, because he had been by him prevented from carrying out of the treasury of St Ambrose's church at Milan, a carbuncle or jewel of great value, which he pretended to reserve for adorning the papal tiara; for which reason he now determined to oppose his ambition.

Miguel, ter. Near the west end is an immense deep valley Milan. like the Furnas, called the Sete Cidades. This valley is surrounded with very abrupt mountains, about seven or eight leagues round; in the bottom is a deep lake of water about three leagues in circuit, furnished with great numbers of water fowls. This water has no mineral quality; neither are there any hot springs in the valley. All these mountains are composed of a white crumbly pumice stone, which is so loose, that if a person thrust a stick into the banks, whole waggon loads of it will tumble down. The inhabitants of the island relate a story, that he who first discovered it observed an extraordinary high peak near the west end; but the second time he visited it, no such peak was to be seen, which he supposed must have certainly sunk; but, however improbable this story may be, at some period or other it must have certainly been the case. See AZORES, SUPPLEMENT.

MILAN, or the duchy of the Milanese, a country of Italy, bounded on the west by Savoy, Piedmont, and Montferrat; by Switzerland on the north; by the territories of Venice, the duchies of Mantua, Parma, and Placentia on the east; and by the territories of Genoa on the south. It is 150 miles long, and 78 broad.

Anciently this duchy, containing the north part of the old Liguria, was called Insubria, from its inhabitants the Insubres; who were conquered by the Romans, as these were by the Goths; who in their turn were subdued by the Lombards. Didier, the last king of the Lombards, was taken prisoner by Charlemagne, who put an end to the Longobardic empire, and appointed governors of Milan. These governors being at a distance from their masters, soon began to assume an independency, which brought a dreadful calamity on the country; for, in 1152, the capital itself was levelled with the ground by the emperor Frederic Barbarossa, who committed great devastations otherwise throughout the duchy. Under this emperor lived one Galvian, a nobleman who was descended from Otho a Milanese. Galvian, along with William prince of Montferrat, served in the crusade, when Godfrey of Boulogne took Jerusalem : he killed in single combat the Saracen general, whom he stripped of his helmet, which was adorned with the image of a serpent swallowing a youth; and this ever afterwards was the badge of that family. His grandson Galvian, having opposed the emperor, was taken prisoner, and carried in irons into Germany, from whence he made his escape, and returning to Milan, died in the service of his country. From him descended another Otho, at the time that Otho IV. was emperor of Germany, and who soon distinguished himself by the accomplishments both of his mind and body. When he grew up, he was received into the family of Cardinal Octavian Ubaldini at Rome. This prelate, who was himself aspiring at the popedom, was in a short time greatly taken with the address and accomplishments of young Otho, and predicted his future greatness. In the mean time, one Torres, or Torriano, a Milanese nobleman of unbounded ambition, was attempting to make himself master of Milan. The popular faction had some time before been caballing against the nobility; and at last, Torriano putting himself at their head, expelled the bishop, and

Ubaldini began with naming Otho archbishop of Milan; which, as the pope's legate, he had a right to do. This nomination was confirmed by Pope Urban IV.; and the party of the nobility having now got a head from the pope himself, began to gather strength. Otho in the mean time employed himself in collecting troops; and had no sooner procured a show of an army than he advanced towards Lago Maggiore, and took possession of Arona, a strong post near that lake: but Torriano, marching immediately against him with all his troops, obliged him to abandon the place, and leave his party to make the best terms they could with the conqueror. This was followed by the destruction of the castles of Arona, Anghiari, and Brebia: soon after which Torriano died, and was succeeded by his brother Philip, who had sufficient interest to get himself elected podesta, or prætor of Milan, for ten years. During his lifetime, however, the party of the nobility increased considerably under Otho, notwithstanding the check they had received. Philip died in 1265, having lost ground considerably in the affections of the people, though he obtained a great reputation for his courage and conduct. His successor Napi rendered himself terrible to the nobility, whom he proscribed, and put to death as often as he could get them into his power. He proceeded such lengths, and acted with such fury against that unfortunate party, that Pope Clement IV. who had succeeded Urban, at last interdicted Milan, and excommunicated Napi and all his party. By this Napi began to lose his popularity, and the public disaffection towards him was much heightened by the natural cruelty of his temper. But in the mean time, the party of the nobility was in the utmost distress. Otho himself and his friends, having spent all their substance, wandered about from place to place; the pope not being in a capacity of giving them any assistance. Otho, however, was not discouraged by his bad success, but found means still to keep up the spirits of his party, who now chose for their general Squarcini Burii, a man of great eminence and courage, whose daughter was married to Matthew Visconti, afterwards called Matthew the Great. At the same time they renewed their confederacy with the marquis of Montferrat, who was son-in-law to the king of Spain. The marquis agreed to this confederacy chiefly with a view to become master of the Milanese.

The nobility now again began to make head; and having collected an army, which was joined by 600

Spanish