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with the Creator, deduces from that connection men's obligations: first, to God, from whom they are; and next, to each other, whom for God's will, and God's sake, they are to love and serve.

Delusion and illusion, though much alike both in derivation and import, yet differ somewhat. The common idea is that of misleading. By delusions others mislead and cheat us; by illusions we mislead and cheat ourselves. Delusions are substantial shows, presented in order to mislead; illusions are dreams and fancies which arise in an ill-regulated mind; the former are mostly dishonest, the latter are always weak; the former are preconcerted, the latter are spontaneous.

PARSING AND COMPOSITION.

For your exercise in parsing and composition take the ensu. Give an account of every part ing letter of Mrs. Barbauld. Convert it into simple sentences; of it as well as you can. and having studied it carefully, close the book and write down from memory all you recollect of it. Then correct your copy by the original. Having done so, write a letter to a friend, if possible, on similar topics.

"July 28, 1803.

"I am glad to find that you have spent the spring so pleasantly. But when you say you made the excursion instead of coming to LonWe don, you forget that you might have passed the latter end of a London winter in town after enjoying the natural spring in the country. have been spending a week at Richmond, in the delightful shades of Ham walks and Twickenham meadows. I never saw so many flowering limes and weeping willows as in that neighbourhood. They say, you know, that Pope's famous willow was the first in the country; and it seems to corroborate it, that there are so many in the vicinity. Under the shade of the trees we read Southey's 'Amadis,' which I As all Englishmen are now to turn suppose you are also reading. knights-errant, and fight against the great giant and monster, BuonaPray are you an parte, the publication seems very reasonable. alarmist ? One hardly knows whether to be frightened or diverted on seeing people assembled at a dinner-table, appearing to enjoy extremely the fare and the company, and saying all the while, with a most smiling and placid countenance, that the French are to land in a fortnight, and that London is to be sacked and plundered for three days-and then they talk of going to watering-places. I am sure we do not believe in the danger we pretend to believe in; and I am sure that none of us can even form an idea how we should feel if we were forced to believe it. I wish I could lose, in the quiet walks of literature, all thoughts of the present state of the political horizon. My brother is going to publish 'Letters to a Young Lady on English Poetry.' He is indefatigable.

'I wish you were half as diligent,'

'Amen!' say I. Love to Eliza and Laura, and thank the say you. I shall always be glad to hear from either of former for her note. them. How delightful must be the soft beatings of a heart entering into the world for the first time, every surrounding object new, fresh, Long may every sweet and fair-all smiling within and without! illusion continue that promotes happiness, and ill befall the rough hand that would destroy them!"

HISTORIC SKETCHES.-XXXII.

ALVA'S MASTER. THE NETHERLANDS. MANY a stout heart quailed, and many a brave man feared, in the cities of the Netherlands, when it was known there, towards the close of the year 1567, that Ferdinand, Duke of Alva, was coming with an army from Spain to assume the government of the provinces. Under the regency of the Duchess of Parma, daughter of their beloved Charles Quint (Charles the Fifth, Emperor of Germany, King of Spain and the Indies, Duke of Burgundy and the Low Countries), they had lived contented enough, save that occasionally they complained of the number and weight of the taxes, and resented grumblingly any attack that was made upon their old commercial and municipal privileges. They adored the memory of Charles the Fifth, the grandson of their own Mary of Burgundy. Charles had dwelt among them, known them as it were intimately, preferred to live in their country rather than in any other spot in his dominions, and ever got back to it again as soon as he could when the exigencies of public business took him out of it. His rule was kindly, though it did not brook rebellion, but then no one wanted to rebel against Charles Quint. Under his rule the Netherlands were happy and flourishing, more so than they had been at any previous period of their history. When he abdicated in favour of his son, Philip II. (in 1556), and it was found that the new king intended to live in Spain, the Netherlanders thought themselves fortunate in having so Charles

Quint-like a resident ruler as Charles's daughter, the Duchess
of Parma.

Notwithstanding that she was obliged, in order to carry out
Philip's policy, which was much less liberal than his father's,
to govern the people somewhat more sternly than they had been
wont to be governed, the duchess was popular enough; and as
she had many ties of sympathy with the people, she was a
would not be oppressed.
guarantee to the Netherlanders that so long as she ruled they
That was a very different matter.
But the Duke of Alva!
Although his name was not so famous, or infamous, as it be
came after he retired from the Low Countries, it was known
to the people as that of a bigoted Spanish soldier, who had
narrow ideas of his duty, but a tremendous energy in carrying
out those ideas-as the name of one who made no secret that
he considered his highest duty to God and man was to root out
Well might the
means adopted, so the end were attained.
heresy wherever he had the chance, not stopping to criticise the

and well-appointed army at his back, to supersede the duchess-
Lowlanders fear when such a man was coming, with a numerous
regent. They knew not what instructions he carried, what
power his commission gave him, but they could read the signs
of the times as well as any statesman in Europe, and they saw
in Alva and the Spanish army nothing but oppression, and most
The political and municipal insti-
tutions of the country were far too free to be to the liking of
likely bloodshed, to come.
an absolutist like the King of Spain or his lieutenant, and the
But still more they feared for what the
people feared lest assaults should be made upon those institu-
tions accordingly.
new governor might bring against that freedom to worship
God according to the dictates of their consciences, which they
had hitherto virtually enjoyed.

With very many of the Netherlanders the doctrines of the
Reformation had found a cordial welcome, so that it is not
perhaps exceeding to say that one-third of their number were
Protestants. Charles the Fifth, himself a rigid Catholic, half
allowed, while he disapproved, the spread of the Reformation
among his people. No persecuting measures had been taken
to secure uniformity during his reign; and though the Catholics
complained of toleration, and did what they could to stir up war
against it, the Protestants were allowed to meet in their own
places of worship. But now it was felt-and there had been
several straws showing which way the wind was likely to blow
What had been
-that all this was about to be changed.
The
attempted in France was to be attempted in the Netherlands,
and, as it seemed, with much better chances of success.
Inquisition was to be imported as part of the baggage of the
Spanish army, and the Protestants of the Low Countries were
In France, where the
to be brought into slavery by it.
Huguenots numbered over two millions, and included among
their ranks some of the most influential of Frenchmen, the
attempts of the League-with its Guises, its Lorraines, and its
Mayennes-to thrust the Inquisition upon the land, were met by
a stubborn organisation of singularly brave men, who had
moreover the countenance, and could procure the material
In the Netherlands there was not any such organisation,
support, of several foreign powers, enemies to their enemies.
at least not then, nor was there, as it seemed, the slightest
prospect of one being formed. It seemed at first sight that
the provinces were utterly at the mercy of the Spaniards, men
in whose composition the quality of mercy was left out-bigots,
Only those whose trust was not
sincere in their bigotry, and cruel by their nature against
everything that thwarted it.
in the arm of flesh only, who believed indeed that there was a
God who judgeth the earth, One who could "mock the counsel
of the wise and valour of the brave "-only such men did not
Long and bitter was the struggle, dark and frightful
despair.
was the night, but with the morning came joy, albeit a subdued
one, and the result of the struggle was to show the world once
again that the victory is not always to the strong.

Alva came, the Duchess of Parma was superseded, and the worst fears of the Netherlanders were justified. Both in politics and religion their liberty was to be taken away, and that by means which showed an almost brutal indifference to all their tenderest susceptibilities. The system of local self-government was changed for government by soldiers, troops were quartered in all the large towns, and the smaller places followed of necessity the example of submission into which their larger

brethren were surprised. The Netherlands were occupied as a hostile country; the irresponsible prerogative of martial law was substituted for the known laws of the land; and the harshness and insolence of military commanders usurped on the judgment-seat the place of magisterial calmness and equity. This was meant only as a foundation on which to build the hateful Inquisition. When the people were bound hand and foot by an army, it was supposed they might be made to accept this darling project of Philip. But there was a limit to the patience even of the Dutchmen and Belgians.* There was a line over which they could not be pushed without resistance; and when the people found that the Inquisition was among them, they rose in spite of the presence of the Spanish soldiery, so that throughout the provinces there was nothing but tumult. It was a state of things well pleasing to Alva, whose cruel disposition took delight in the prospect of dragooning the people into submission, of getting rid, by the way, of sundry inconvenient nobles, and at the same time of doing what his bigotry told him was a service acceptable to God, viz., the punishment and eradication of heresy.

Alva's powers were of the fullest. There was no need to send to Madrid for instructions, though reinforcements were demanded and sent. The risings which took place in most of the large towns were put down with Spanish cruelty; men were hanged summarily over their own doors; the prisons were not erowded, for the Spanish system was too "thorough" to be hampered with prisoners, its judicial procedure too simple to be fettered with a sliding scale of punishments according to offences, and so Death got his due, and more; and there was mourning of widows and orphans wherever the Spanish officers set up their courts. These first risings were the expression of spontaneous, natural resistance to tyranny, not the result of organised rebellion. The Netherlanders formerly, under their counts and dukes, had been so tetchy and independent as to have acquired a notoriety in Europe as the most rebellious and unmanageable of subjects, and had dared on several occasions to provoke and resist the wrath of so hard and haughty a lord as Charles the Bold, of Burgundy. But under more judicious and larger-hearted government, especially that of their now persecutor's father, they had forgotten the art of factiousness, and scarcely knew what it meant to rebel. Now they had to learn hurriedly, and in the face of cruel necessity, the long disused science, and to unite heart and hand in a common cause, which was not only the cause of patriotism, but of humanity. It was seen very clearly that unless a stop were put, or at least a protest raised, against the policy of which the Duke of Alva was the exponent, both the name and form of political independence were gone, and the hitherto free Netherlanders must become the slaves of Spain. This fact brought over to the ranks of the malcontents even those who, being Catholics, might not have been disposed to stir against the Inquisition. The attempt to subvert civil liberty struck a chord in all hearts which vibrated right through the land. But most of the Catholics resented the Inquisition with nearly as much anger as the Protestants, the result being that every man, woman, and child in the Low Countries, with a few ignoble exceptions, was ready, from one motive or the other, to rebel against Alvaism. Remonstrants were treated as mutineers, deputations to Spain to beg the interference and protection of Philip were insulted and maltreated, and orders were given to the Duke of Alva to "quiet" the provinces.

The spirit of rebellion unguided, not concentrated but diffused, could only expose those in whom it dwelt to revengeful destruction, without in any way helping them to the goal they aimed at. Organisation, and some definite object to be gained through it-these were necessary to success; and for these the people looked, naturally enough, to the nobles, their countrymen, who lived among them, knew their ways and thoughts, and were thoroughly identified with themselves. At first the nobles held back. They were shy of entering upon an enter prise wherein the alternative of success-success against the power and resources of the mightiest empire in the world-were death for themselves and their followers, and ruin, thorough and complete, for their families. A few generous spirits, and a few with little save their own heads to lose, entered precipitately

The existing kingdoms of Holland and Belgium were at this time included in the Netherlands, of which there were seventeen provinces.

into the strife, and came promptly to an untimely end. But the great nobles, the men of influence and fortune, hesitated to guide the storm of their countrymen's indignation against the oppressors, until they were satisfied that nothing was to be got by other means, and until, when satisfied of that, things were actually ready for the tremendous contest. There was no lack of patriotism, of self-denial, self-sacrifice, or personal courage in the Dutch, Flemish, and Brabant nobles, but they felt themselves constrained to hope, almost against hope, that so dreadful a sorrow as that which threatened, would not be thrust upon their country. They felt it to be their duty, in spite of what was daily going on through Spanish instrumentality, to try-as the Long Parliament did in England before the Civil War-every constitutional means of easing the people's burdens before they committed themselves and the country to open war with the government. They tried and failed. The crafty Spaniard who governed pretended to listen to their remonstrances, and made a show of asking their advice, but he simply wanted to gain time, and to mature his plans for getting them into his net.

Greatest of all the noblemen in the provinces was the Prince of Orange, known in history as William the Silent. Of vast estates and fortune, second to none in rank, of extraordinary ability and indomitable will, he was eminently fitted to be the leader of his country. He was of those who tried everything rather than rebellion to bring the Spaniards to their senses. He was the first to see that nothing but rebellion would do, the first who set seriously to work to organise and draw to a head that spirit of resistance which was rife throughout the country. Being a man who kept his own counsel, and who never made a feint till he was ready to strike, he succeeded in keeping clear of Alva's toils, though not of his suspicion. Convinced when he saw the Inquisition actually established, its victims of both sexes publicly burned by scores, whole townships ruthlessly butchered, in return for trivial signs of disaffection, and a reign of terror begun, that there could be but one end of it all, he kept out of the Spanish monster's way, and gave himself heart and soul to the cause which, but for him-unless a miracle had been wrought-must have perished miserably. The spark which fired the train of every Netherlander's fury was the seizure, mock trial, and execution of Counts Egmont and Horn at Brussels. These noblemen fell victims to their own generous impetuosity, which led them, in the discharge of what they deemed to be their duty, to place themselves at the mercy-save the mark!-of the Duke of Alva. They were exceedingly popular, and in their blood was quenched the last spark of allegiance towards the Spanish king. Many merchants and skilled artisans left the country, and brought to England the wealth and industry which helped so materially to enlarge the commercial prosperity of that country during the time of Elizabeth; but there remained enough of willing hearts and strong bodies to bear the cause of the Prince of Orange stiffly up, and to resist even to death, and beyond the power of death, the wicked attempts of the Spaniards to tread down their brethren.

In 1572 William the Silent put himself at the head of the Beggars, as the insurgents were contemptuously called, and gave the Spanish soldiers something else than unarmed burghers and defenceless women to practise on. Alva took the field, and made preparations on an extensive scale for crushing the robellion; but his wary opponent, possessing an intimate know. ledge of the country, and having the sympathies of all noncombatants-all the fighting men were with him-avoided any decisive actions, and practised his troops in skirmishes and small engagements with the enemy. Aware, however, of the importance of securing the sea-coast, in order to keep up his communications with England and to ensure supplies, he made a dash at Brille, captured it, and having fortified the place, began fitting out cruisers to prey upon Spanish commerce.

The war went on with dreadful fury. The raw levies of the insurgents were no match in the open field for the splendidlytrained troops of Spain, and they had more courage than discretion even in the defence of their besieged towns. The result was that the Netherlanders experienced defeat after defeat, each loss being followed up by barbarous executions of prisoners, and the captured towns being exposed to all the brutality of a licentious soldiery. But no disaster could daunt the spirit of the Prince of Orange: bowed down though he was with the

238

weight of cares and responsibilities, grieved and shocked for the sufferings which the rebellion had brought upon the people, he never gave way to despair. Quietly, doggedly, trustfully, he applied himself to his work, convinced of the righteousness of his cause, and willing to leave the issue in His hands with whom are all things. Generally defeated, he set the example which his descendant, William the Third of England, followed, of immediately showing front again, and of snatching from the enemy the fruits of victory. Alva fretted like a galled horse, but he could not make any impression. All his cruelty, all his cunning, all his energy went for nothing; he had found his master; and after two years spent in incessantly trying, with enormous means, to win back the revolted provinces, he was obliged to give up in despair, and return to Spain with the (to him) grim satisfaction that during his term of office he had destroyed some 18,000 of the Netherlanders by public executions.

trouvaient là, en les invitant à faire quelques acquisitions. Le marchand poussa un cri de joie :

"Enfin te voilà (h) retrouvé, mon brave Moustache," 10 s'écriat-il en flattant (i) le chien.

Alors il se mit (j) à raconter, qu'en traversant la forêt, son chien s'était élancé à la poursuite d'un animal sauvage," qu'il ne s'était aperçu que long-temps après de sa disparition, qu'alors il l'avait vainement appelé; Moustache n'était pas revenu. avait alors supposé, qu'entraîné par son ardeur, son chien s'était égaré, 12 ou bien encore, qu'ayant attaqué quelque bête féroce, il avait succombé dans la lutte.

Π

"Je ne m'étais pas tout à fait 13 trompé," (k) ajouta-t-il, "car je vois que Moustache a été blessé. Mais qui donc a eu la bonté s'écria-t-il en apercede le secourir, de panser sa blessure ?" 14 vant le mouchoir qui enveloppait la patte de Moustache. À ces mots, le chien, comme s'il eut compris (1) ce que venait de dire son maître, se mit à courir au-devant des trois enfants' qui se dirigeaient de ce côté, et se plaçant près de Fanny, 16 il ne la quitta pas d'un instant, qu'elle ne fût arrivée à l'endroit où se trouvait le marchand.17

COLLOQUIAL EXERCISE.

1. Que fit Fanny après avoir ar-
raché l'épine?

Requesens succeeded him, and after carrying on a desolating war for three years, during which the people of the provinces suffered horribly, he was obliged to come to terms with some of the states, eleven of which agreed for peace on condition of Alva's laws being repealed, all foreigners being expelled, and Don John of the power of the States-General being restored. Austria, brother to Philip of Spain, succeeded Requesens, and artfully wrought upon the southern provinces to desert the northern by appealing to their anti-Protestant prejudices. The Prince of Orange knew what he was doing, and anticipated the 4. result by forming, in 1579, the Confederacy of Utrecht, which 5. was the foundation of the Dutch Republic, known as the Republic of the United Provinces.

The war continued, the Belgians joining with the Spaniards, under the first generals of the age, to crush the Hollanders. The sufferings of the devoted people were horrible, but they never talked of surrender; they were often brimful of despair, In 1581 they offered but they never allowed it to find vent. the crown to the Duke of Anjou, brother of the French king, but he could not take it; then they offered it, in 1585, to Queen Elizabeth, who also declined, but she helped them with an army, in which Sir Philip Sidney fought and died, in which Walter Raleigh served, and which the Earl of Leicester commanded. In 1584, when the murder of William of Orange seemed to render the cause of the patriots utterly hopeless, the Hollanders gave Maurice, the dead man's son, the supreme command; and he, emulating the wisdom and valour of his father, strove so well, in conjunction with his English allies, that he beat back the oppressors of his country, weary and exhausted, and compelled Spain, in 1609, to acknowledge the independence of the Republic.

The other provinces which made peace with Spain remained to that power till 1714, when they were made over to the In that year Austrian Hapsburgs, who kept them till 1791. the French annexed them, and they formed part of the empire On that occasion they were till the overthrow of Napoleon. added to the kingdom of Holland, with which they remained till 1830, when the existing kingdoms of Holland and Belgium were marked out and recognised.

READINGS IN FRENCH.-VII.

UN BIENFAIT N'EST JAMAIS PERDU.

SECTION II.

2

FANNY arracha l'épine, non sans peine, lava le sang qui coulait de la blessure;' puis, prenant son mouchoir, elle en fit (a) un bandage avec lequel elle enveloppa la patte du patient, qui, se sentant soulagé, léchait le cou et les mains de sa petite bienfaitrice, en faisant entendre un grognement de plaisir; puis il se coucha (b) à ses pieds jusqu'au moment où les enfants se disposèrent à regagner l'habitation. Quand ils se remirent (c) en route, il alla se placer à côté de Fanny," en fixant sur elle des yeux expressifs et qui semblaient l'interroger. Elle lui fit signe de la suivre. Alors, oubliant sa blessure, faisant (d) un bond de plaisir, l'animal forma cortège (e) à la petite troupe,7 qui ne tarda pas à rentrer dans la cour de l'habitation.

À peine avaient-ils franchi la barrière, que le chien prit (f) sa course et se précipita vers un groupe rassemblé autour d'une sorte de marchand ambulant (g) qui, ayant ouvert plusieurs ballots, étalait ses marchandises devant les personnes qui se

2.

3.

Que fit-elle de son mouchoir?
Comment le chien marqua-t-il

sa reconnaissance?

Où se coucha-t-il ensuite ?

Neuve, quand ils se remirent Que fit le chien de Terreen route ?

6. Quel signe lui fit alors Fanny?

7.

8.

Que fit le chien sur le chemin

de l'habitation ?

Où courut-il après avoir franchi

la barrière ?

(a) From faire.

(b) Se coucha, laid down.
(c) From remettre.
(d) From faire.

(e) Forma cortège, escorted.
(f) From prendre.

15

9. Que faisait le marchand ambulant?

10. Que dit son maître en voyant
le chien ?

11. Que raconta le marchand?
12. Qu'avait-il supposé ?
13. Qu'ajouta-il ensuite ?

14. Que demanda-t-il en aperce-
vant le mouchoir ?

15. Comment le chien sembla-t-il répondre à la question de son maître ?

16. Où ce plaça-t-il ?

17. Quand quitta-t-il Fanny?

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SECTION III.

Alors, remuant la queue et regardant tour à tour Fanny et son maître, Moustache sembla la désigner comme celle qui lui avait donné ses soins. Le marchand apprit (a) alors des enfants ce qui s'était passé ; le pauvre homme ne savait (b) comment leur témoigner sa reconnaissance,3 car dans ses longues courses, Moustache était non-seulement pour lui un compagnon de route, c'était un véritable ami, un brave défenseur qui l'avait préservé de mille dangers. Il voulait mettre à la disposition des enfants toute sa petite cargaison; mais M. Dérambert s'opposa à ce qu'il fit aucun sacrifice onéreux; 6 seulement, comme il vit (c) Le lendemain, le marchand que ce refus l'affligeait, il permit à ses enfants d'accepter quelques jouets de peu de valeur.7 partit en demandant à M. Dérambert la permission de revenir dans quelque temps visiter son habitation, ce qui lui fut accordé de grand cœur.

10

Trois mois à peine s'étaient écoulés (d) depuis cette époque, lorsqu'un jour Alfred, s'étant mis (e) à la poursuite d'un papillon, s'écarta sans qu'on fît attention à sa disparition. Sur les dix heures du matin, heure à laquelle les trois enfants avaient l'habitude d'aller à la vallée déjeûner à l'ombre du châtaignier, on fut très-surpris de ne le point voir avec Auguste et Fanny." On l'appela, on le chercha de tous côtés; bientôt tout le monde fut sur pied. Alfred ne parut (f) pas. Le père et la mère, tous les domestiques parcoururent en vain les alentours; 12 ils n'en découvrirent aucune trace; 13 désespérés de cet événe ment, ils se partagèrent en plusieurs bandes; 14 ils allèrent avec leurs voisins, qu'ils avertirent du malheur qui leur était arrivé, à la découverte, et ils s'enfoncèrent dans la forêt qu'ils battirent (3) en tout sens avec la plus scrupuleuse attention.15 Mille fois ils appelèrent l'enfant par son nom, ils n'en reçurent aucune réponse. Cependant, les dernières lueurs du jour n'éclairaient plus que faiblement les recherches, 17 et rien encore n'était venu calmer les inquiétudes de M. et de Mme. Dérambert: les ap proches de la nuit redoublèrent leurs alarmes. 18 Dans leur désespoir, ils ne voulurent jamais consentir à retourner dans

leur domicile.19 Ils allumèrent des torches de résine et firent (h) retentir les bois, les vallées, du nom chéri d'Alfred.20

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Alfred, mon Alfred! où es-tu ?" s'écriait la mère de l'accent de voix le plus déchirant; mais c'était en vain. Je n'essaierai (i) pas non plus de vous peindre le désespoir d'Auguste et de Fanny 21 pleurant, sanglotant. Le châtaignier, le raisseau, les frais bocages qu'ils parcouraient ensemble ne préBentaient aucune trace d'Alfred.

COLLOQUIAL EXERCISE.

1. Que fit le chien en regardant 11. Que fit-on alors? Fanny? 12. Où allèrent le père, la mère et tous les domestiques ? 13. Trouvèrent-ils le petit garçon?

2 Qu'apprit le marchand, des enfants ?

S. Le pauvre homme paraissaitil ému ?

4. Pourquoi était-il si reconnaissant?

3. Que voulait-il donner aux enfants?

6. A quoi M. Dérambert s'opposa-t-il ?

7. Que permit-il à ses enfants d'accepter ?

8. Que demanda à M. Dérambert le marchand, à son départ ? 9. Qu'arriva-t-il trois mois après ? 10. A quelle heure s'aperçut-on de l'absence du petit Alfred?

LESSONS IN CHEMISTRY.-XXII.

IRON (continued)-TITANIUM-TIN-TUNGSTEN-MOLYB-
DENUM-VANADIUM,

3. Refining. Although "pig-iron" is used for casting, it is unable to be worked at the forge, and before it can become "wrought-iron" it must pass through two processes, in which all extraneous matter is removed. The finery into which the pig-iron is introduced is a furnace, or forge, on the hearth of which it is melted, not in contact with the combustible matter, which is usually coke; a double row of blast-pipes urge the heated air, etc., from the burning coke over the hearth on which the pig-iron is placed, and thus it is melted. Fig. 51 will afford an easy explanation of this process. The iron is melted on the hearth, A, which is made of iron plates, which are kept cool by the air being allowed to circulate freely around. The fire is fed with coke through the door D, and the iron is introduced by a side door in the wall, which has been taken away to exhibit this section; B are two of the blast-pipes; F is the floss-hole, out of which the slag escapes as it rises over the partition, floating on the melted iron. The following will at 19. Voulurent-ils rentrer chez once show the effect the refinery has on the cast-iron :eux ?

14. Comment firent-ils ensuite ?

15. Examinèrent-ils bien la forêt? 16. Leur recherche eut-elle quelque

succès ?

17. Quelle heure était-il alors? 18. Quel fut l'effet des approches de la nuit, sur les parents de

l'enfant ?

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NOTES.

(a) From apprendre.

(b) From savoir.

(c) From voir.

(d) S'étaient écoulés, had elapsed.

(6) From metire.

Auguste et Fanny partageaient-ils le chagrin de leurs parents?

(f) From paraitre.

(9) From battre.

(h) Firent, caused; from faire. (i) From essayer.

KEY TO EXERCISES IN LESSONS IN FRENCH. EXERCISE 121 (Vol. II., page 202).

5.

1. Would you be glad to become acquainted with that gentleman? 2. I should be very glad of it. 3. Does that horse go a league in a quarter of an hour? 4. He went a league this morning in twelve minutes. Have you asked them questious? 6. I have. 7. What questions have you asked them? 8. I have asked them if they had made purchases. 9. Do your pupils improve in their studies? 10. They do not improve much, they seldom come to school. 11. If you were at home, would you pretend to sleep? 12. I should not certainly pretend to sleep. 13. Why do you not let in that beggar? 14. My mother has just given him alms. 15. Does the merchant use his credit? 16. He uses it. 17. Of what food does that sick man make use? 18. He makes use of rice and broth. 19. Are you doing your best to succeed? 3. I am doing my best. 21. Have you let in those children, or have you made them go out? 22. I left them where they were. 23. Have we made you wait? 24. You have made us wait several hours. 25. If you made those ladies wait, they would be angry.

EXERCISE 122 (Vol. II., page 202).

1. Cet enfant fait-il semblant de lire? 2. Il fait semblant de lire. 3. Ce monsieur ne fait-il pas semblant de dormir? 4. Il ne fait pas semblant de dormir, il dort réellement. 5. Voulez-vous faire un tour de promenade ce matin? 6. Je le ferais avec plaisir, si j'avais le temps. 7. Avez-vous fait connaissance avec le médecin? 8. Je n'ai pas encore fait connaissance avec lui. 9. Combien de questions avez-vous faites à l'enfant? 10. Je lui ai fait beaucoup de questions. 11. Lui avez-vous demaudé s'il avait étudié sa Ion?

12. Je ne le lui ai pas demandé. 13. Cette petite fille ne fera-t-elle pas son possible pour apprendre sa leçon? 14. Elle fera son possible pour l'apprendre. 15. De quelle nourriture faites-vous usage quand vous êtes malade? 16. Nous faisons usage de pain et de riz. 17. Avez-vous oublié de faire vos adieux à Mme. votre mère? 18. Je ne l'avais pas oublié, j'avais l'intention d'aller chez elle cette après-midi. 19. Avec qui avez-vous fait connaissance? 20. Avec le hbraire. 21. Ne faites-vous pas attendre ces dames? 22. Je ne les fais pas attendre, elles ne sont pas prètes. 23. Est-ce que je vous fis attendre? 24. Vous ne me faites pas attendre. 25. Avez-vous laissé vos enfants dans votre chambre? 26. Je ne l'ai pas fait. Les avez-vous fait sortir? 28. Je ne les ai pas fait sortir, je les ai laissés où ils étaient. 29. Avez-vous fait des emplettes ce matin? 30. Je n'en ai pas fait, je n'ai pas d'argent. 31. Le domestique a-t-il fait du feu dans ma chambre? 32. Il en a fait. 33. Ferez-vous votre possible pour venir demain? 34. Je i rai mon possible pour venir de bonne heure. 35. Nous fimes hier quarante lieues en seize

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Carbon. Silicon. Phosphorus. Iron. Pig Iron. 3:0 + 4.5 + 0.2 + 92.3 100.0. Refined Iron. 1.7 + 0.5 + 0.0 + 97.8 100'0. The carbon and phosphorus are burnt out. Some of the iron is oxidised, and this, with the silicon, forms a fusible slag, and comes away through the floss-hole. The melted iron is run off into flat cakes about three or four inches thick, and is suddenly cooled by throwing water upon it. It has now lost the coarse grain of the pig-iron, and its colour is a silvery white.

4. Puddling is the last process by which the remaining silicon and carbon are separated from the iron. The refined iron is broken into pieces, and again melted in a reverberatory furnace, similar to the one drawn in Fig. 51. The melted mass is stirred with iron rods, upon the end of which it agglomerates, forming blooms. The rod is drawn from the furnace with this mass of white-hot molten paste adhering to it, and although it weighs some three-quarters of a hundred-weight, yet with the greatest ease and rapidity one or two men drag it to the shingling press, where a huge hammer descends upon it; again and again the pressman turns it under the blow of the hammer, which squeezes out the impurities, and welds the metal into a plate of "wroughtiron."

As fully as our space will permit, we have described the operation of reducing iron from the ore; but it must be remembered that the quality of the iron is affected by the least change in the fuel, the lime, or the quantity of air driven by the blasts, and that at every point of the process experience has suggested certain improvements, to understand which a work on metallurgy must be consulted.

Steel is a carbide of iron; it contains from 13 to 1.7 per cent. of carbon. The usual mode of manufacturing steel is to pack bars of wrought-iron in boxes of brickwork, with cement powder, which is a mixture of soot and salt. The boxes are so arranged that they can be elevated to a temperature which will melt copper, and maintained at that point for six or eight days; thus carbon is introduced into the iron. It will be evident that the exterior of the bar will be more highly carburetted than the interior; hence the bars are melted in crucibles and cast into ingots, forming the cast-steel of which cutlery is made. Seeing that there is 3 per cent. of carbon in pig-iron, and none in wrought-iron, it is plain that if the process were stopped just at that point when the metal was combined with 15 of carbon we should have steel. Upon this principle Mr. Bessemer founded his process of making steel; he forces a quantity of air into the bottom of a cylinder full of melted "pig-iron," and thus burns out the carbon; the process is arrested just when the proper quantity of carbon remains to form steel. Bessemer's steel is largely used for rails of railways, and, indeed, is fast supplanting the use of wrought-iron, where hardness is required.

When steel is touched with a drop of nitric acid a grey spot appears, the acid dissolving the iron, and the carbon remaining. Iron forms with oxygen three distinct oxides-ferrous oxide (FeO), ferric oxide or sesquioxide (Fe,O,), magnetic oxide, which is a compound of these (FeO,Fe,O,), and ferric acid (H,,FeO.).

The first can never be obtained, for its great affinity for

oxygen causes it to unite with that element and become the next higher oxide. In a hydrated form it is precipitated from any ferrous solution by potash.

Ferric oxide (Fe,O,) appears in nature crystallised as specular iron ore, and as red hæmatite. It may be prepared artificially by precipitation from ferric sulphate or chloride by ammonia, and heating the precipitate. Both the above oxides are bases for corresponding salts.

Ferrous sulphate (FeSO, + 7H,O) is copperas or green vitriol; it is the result of the action of sulphuric acid on metallic iron. If it be permitted to absorb oxygen it changes colour, and becomes partially Ferric sulphate (Fe,3SO,). Green vitriol is used with astringent matters as a black dye. With gallic acid it forms ink.

Ferrous chloride (Fe,Cl).-When iron is acted upon by hydrochloric acid, and the solution evaporated, green crystals of this salt, with four molecules of water of crystallisation, are formed. Ferric chloride (Fe,Cl) is produced when hydrochloric acid acts upon ferric oxide.

Ferric acid has never been prepared, it is very unstable; but if nitre and ferric oxide be fused together, potassium ferrate (K,FeO.) is formed. This metal forms many other salts, but they are of no great interest.

The ferrous or protoxide salts give green solutions; with alkalis they yield white precipitates, and a light-blue colour with potassium ferro-cyanide, which rapidly becomes dark. If their solution be slightly acid, sulphuretted hydrogen has no effect upon them.

Ferric or peroxide salts are of a reddish-brown colour, and such is the colour of their precipitate with the various alkalis.

Potassium sulpho-cyanide in neutral solutions gives a thick precipitate of a darkred colour, similar to that of blood. Potassium ferrocyanide affords a copious precipitate of a rich dark-blue colour.

It should be said that under the action of the blowpipe both classes of salts act alike, namely, with them a borax bead becomes green in the reducing flame, which

out into wire. When bent it emits a "crackling" noise. It melts at 235° Cent., and can be volatilised, though with difficulty. The air has but little effect on it; but when heated to a high temperature it combines with oxygen, burning brilliantly into a white powder, stannic oxide (SnO,).

It is chiefly used in commerce as a covering to sheets of iron. The best iron is used, and by a series of processes is rendered chemically clean; the sheet is then immersed in melted tin, and an alloy is formed at the surface of the iron. The sheet is dipped a second time, and the superfluous metal drained off.

If the surface of a sheet of tin be sponged with a mixture of two parts nitric acid, two of hydrochloric, and four of water, the crystalline appearance known as moirée métallique is produced. The plate must be gently heated before the application of the acid, and quickly plunged into water and varnished. Different effects may be produced by using coloured varnishes. Alloys of Tin.-Britannia metal is equal parts of brass, tin, antimony, and bismuth. Pewter is 4 parts of tin and 1 of lead. Solder, 2 parts of tin and 1 of lead. Bell metal is 78 of copper and 22 of tin. Gun metal is 90 of copper and 10 of tin. Bronze contains less tin than gun metal, and usually 3 or 4 per cent. of zinc. Speculum metal, which admits of a high polish, and is used for the mirrors of reflecting telescopes, consists of 2 parts of copper and 1 of tin, and an amalgam of tin and mercury is employed for silvering mirrors. A sheet of tinfoil is laid on a level marble slab, and covered by clean mercury; the superfluous quicksilver runs into a groove cut in the stone round its edge. When the mercury remains on the foil in a layer of the thickness of half-a-crown, a perfectly dry and clean

Fig. 51.-SECTION OF REFINING FURNACE.

sheet of glass is carefully slid over the mercury, beginning at one end of the slab by dipping the edge of the glass beneath the surface of the quicksilver-thus all air-bubbles are excluded; the glass is covered with flannel and weighted, the slab being inclined to allow the mercury to drain off. This inclination is increased until, in a month, the glass is vertical, and is then in a fit condition to frame.

Tin forms two oxides :
Stannous oxide (SnO) is

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all but loses its colour when it is exposed to the oxidising flame. | prepared as a white hydrate, by precipitation from a solution

TITANIUM.

SYMBOL, TI-COMBINING WEIGHT, 50.

This is a rare metal, generally associated with iron. They appear together in Rutile, and it would seem that a minute quantity of titanium is disseminated through the clay iron ore. For in the cindery coating of the crucible of a smelting furnace, after many years' work, there appears beautiful cubic crystals of a red metallic substance, which are found to be a compound of nitrogen and titanium. Though this metal is found with iron, it bears a close analogy to

TIN.

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SYMBOL, Sn- COMBINING WEIGHT, 118 SPECIFIC GRAVITY, 7.3. The only ore of tin of importance is tin-stone, which is the binoxide of the metal (SnO2); it is by no means widely distributed, only being worked in three or four localities. The mines of Cornwall furnished the Romans with their supply, and still yield 6,000 tons annually. The island of Banca, in the East Indies, is almost a block of very pure ore. Mexico also possesses tin mines. When a stream of water wears away the rock through which a vein of tin passes, the ore is found water-worn in the bed of the stream. This is the most valuable ore, and goes by the name of stream-tin. The reduction of the metal is easily accomplished, since the washed and pure ore has only to be submitted to heat in a reverberatory furnace, mixed with coal and a little lime. The ore gives up its oxygen to the coal, and the lime, with some silica, which is unavoidably present, forms a fusible slag. The metal sinks to the bottom of the furnace, and the slag swims on its surface.

Tin is a white brilliant metal, capable of being beaten out into "foil," and sufficiently ductile to allow of its being drawn

of stannous chloride by an alkaline carbonate. When moist it absorbs oxygen, and becomes

Stannic oxide (SnO,), which is found as tin-stone. It may be artificially prepared by the action of nitric acid on tin, or by adding an alkali to a solution of a stannic salt. It is remarkable, that when prepared in the former way it is insoluble in hydrochloric acid, whereas, in the latter case, it is readily soluble.

When tin is treated with nitric acid, a white crystalline insoluble mass is formed

Metastannic acid, which, when heated to 100° Cent., parts with some of its water and becomes

Putty powder, which is much used in making enamels. These oxides of tin are of great use to the dyer as mordants. Bisulphide of tin (SnS,) is mosaic gold, a powder which closely resembles the precious metal, and is used in decoration. The purple of Cassius appears when stannous chloride (SnCl) is added to a solution of chloride of gold.

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TUNGSTEN.

SYMBOL, W COMBINING WEIGHT, 184.

This metal, combined with iron, occurs in the mineral wolfram. It has been lately discovered that a little of it in steel greatly increases the hardness of that substance.

Tungstic acid (WO) is obtained as a yellow powder when native tungstate of lime, scheelite, is treated with nitric acid; with sodium, the tungstate of soda is formed, which is mixed with starch, and used by the laundress to render muslins, etc., uninflammable.

Molybdenum and Vanadium are closely allied to tungsten, but, as yet, have no commercial value.

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