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11.

14. The numbers

10. Louis the Fourteenth was a lover of the fine arts and sciences.
The emperor died at twenty minutes past eleven. 12. I have been only
twice in America, but the fourth time in England. 13. The Germans
have had war with the French at different times.
four and nine have won threefold.
the eighteenth of June, 1815.
17. He is sixty years old. 18. This handsome horse is three years old,
and that larger one is six. 19. What wine is this? 20. It is of the
vintage of 1834. 21. I pay five per cent. interest for this capital. 22.
Are there stags in this forest ? 23. Yes, the huntsman shot one, six-
teen years old, the day before yesterday.

15. The battle of Waterloo was on
16. Do you know how old that man is?

EXERCISE 117 (Vol. II., page 247).

banche (pronounced báhn-kai), banks, offices; stecchi (sték-kee). thorns, prickles; Tedeschi (tai-dái-skee), Germans; Turchi (toórrkee), Turks; oche (d-kai), geese; vecchio (vék-keeo), an old man; perchè (per-kái), why; fianchi (feeáhn-kee), flanks, sides; Gherardo (gai-ráhrr-do), Gerard; ghetto (ghét-to), a jewry; ghirland 3 (ghirr-láhn-dah), garland; ghibellino (ghi-bel-lée-no), Ghibellin; alberghi (ahl-bêrr-ghee), hotels; maghe (máh-gai), sorceresses; impieghi (im-peeê-ghee), employments.

But suppose a necessity arises for giving to the letter c before a, o, and u the sound of c in the word church, and to g before a, u, and o the sound of g in ginger. Evidently a sign must be used to indicate that, or else c would be sounded like k, and like g in game. Now this sign is the vowel i. In common conversation this i is scarcely heard, serving the purpose only of a mere soundless written sign; but in the more measured or studied pronunciation of the pulpit, the stage, public assem

1. Mein Bruder hat hundert Bücher, und mein Onkel, der Professor, hat mehr als tausend. 2. Er stand gewöhnlich um halb sechs des Morgens auf, und arbeitete bis drei viertel auf elf. 3. Ich habe sieben Monate bei ihm zugebracht. 4. Ich habe zwei Dußend Federn und sieben Buch Papier verfauft. 5. Die Hälfte eines Hasen aß er zu seinem Frühstück. 6. Dieses schöne Pferd ist fünf Jahre alt. 7. Der dritte Theil dieses Geldes gehört blies, and even frequently in the conversation of cultivated mir. 8. Ich vergab Ihnen einmal. 9. Sie thaten es zweimal. 10. persons, the i is slightly touched in the enunciation, while the voice rapidly glides to the pronunciation of the vowels a, 0, Dieses Stück enthält ungefähr zwei und zwanzig Ellen. 11. Meine and u. Hence another fundamental rule of Italian, which goes Schwester starb in ihrem sechszehnten Jahre. 12. Tausende starben im side by side with the one above stated, that whenever a necesJahre 1852 in Polen an der Cholera. 13. Die Flasche zwei und dreißigersity arises for giving to the c before a, o, and u the compressed (Wein) wird für einen Thaler verkauft. 14. Meine Schwester kaufte trei Ellen Band. 15. Rom wurde von Romulus fieben hundert und zwei und fünfzig Jahre vor Christi Geburt gegründet.

EXERCISE 118 (Vol. II., page 282).

1. Even the victors praised the valour of the conquered. 2. The song touched even the most inflexible hearts. 3. The strains of music reached even our ears. 4. Even here the children's joyful laughing can be heard. 5. How can one demand of others what he will not do himself? 6. One ought to esteem himself. 7. The weed grows by

itself, without our sowing and attending to it. 8. Even poverty shall not hinder me from acting honestly. 9. If you also forsake me, then I have no longer a friend. 10. Oh that that time were already arrived! 11. Although he has a rough exterior, nevertheless he has a tender heart. 12. If you do this also, I will reward you well. 13. However many there are of you, I will enter into a contest with each of you. 14. However much Henry works, nevertheless he accomplishes nothing. 15. However much he spoke, nevertheless they did not hear him. 16. Whatever may happen, I shall remain faithful to him. 17. Whatever kind of news arrives, they do not become disheartened.

18. Whatever

my friend begins, he has no success. 19. Whatever it may be, nobody

21.

shall hear it. 20. He has not even money enough to buy bread.
We must love everybody, even our enemies. 22. Even upon these con-

ditions I cannot accept your proposal. 23. He could select even from

all the books the most beautiful one.

LESSONS IN ITALIAN.—VI.
V.-PRONUNCIATION OF THE LETTERS C, G, S, IN COM-

BINATION WITH OTHER LETTERS.

It is necessary that I should now explain with some degree of minuteness certain peculiarities of the most frequent occurrence, and consequently of the highest importance in the pronunciation of the letters c, g, and s, when they enter into certain combinations with other letters.

nouns,

With regard to the letters c and g, I have already stated and illustrated by examples in the first pronouncing table, that when c and g are placed before the vowels a, o, and u, c is sounded like k, and g like the English g in the words game, go, and gull. But suppose that it should be necessary in the declension of the conjugation of verbs, etc., to give to the c and g before the vowels e and i the same sound that c and g have before a, o, and u; it is obvious that some sign must be used to mark that pronunciation of the c and g, and avoid confusion. This sign is no other than the letter h, which, as has been remarked, is a mere soundless, written sign, and on that account pre-eminently suited to the purpose. In this way we arrive at the combinations ch and gh; and from what has been said it is obvious that the sound of ch before e and i can be no other than the sound of k; and the sound of gh before e and i, that of g in the English words game, go, and gull. And, indeed, it is a fundamental rule of Italian grammar, that whenever a grammatical necessity arises in the inflections or terminational changes of a word for retaining the sound of the c which in the root is sounded like k, and the sound of g which in the root is sounded like g in game, go, and gull, before the vowels e and i; h must be placed between c and g and the vowels e and i, and the combinations thus resulting will be che, chi, and ghe, ghi (pronounced kai or kê, kee; gai or ghê, ghee). For example,

sound of c in the English word church, and to g before a, o, and u the compressed sound of g in ginger, the letter i (an auxiliary letter in this case) must be placed between c and the vowels a, o, and u, and between g and the vowels a, o, and u; and the combinations thus arising will be cia, cio, ciu, and gia, gio, giu, (pronounced tchah, tcho, tchoo, and jah, jo, joo). For example, ciascuno (tohah-skóo-no), everybody; ciancia (tcháhn-tchah), foolery; cio (tchô), that, what; cioe (tchoê), that is to say; braccio (bráht-tcho), arm; ciuffo (tchóof-fo), I catch, I snap: ciurma (tohóorr-mah), a mob, a crew of galley-slaves; giallo (jáhl-lo), yellow; giorno (jórr-no), day; giudice (jóo-dee-tchai), judge; giustizia (joo-stée-tzeeah), justice; giubilo (jóo-bee-lo), joy jubilee.

When c follows the letter s, thus forming the combination sc, and when at the same time it precedes the vowels a, o, and #, or the consonants 1 and r, it will be clearly apparent that the c in this case will follow the general rule, and be sounded like k; sklah, etc., skree, etc.). When, however, the combination sc as sca, sco, scu, scla, etc., scri, etc. (pronounced skah, sko, skoo, immediately precedes the vowels e and i, the sound of the c is less compressed than without the s before it; and sc in such cases is sounded like sh in English words. The combinations sce and sci will therefore be pronounced shai, or shê, and shee. But when c, with an s before it and with e or i to follow, is to retain the sound of k just as before a, o, and u, recourse is had to the same auxiliary letter h to indicate the preservation of the sound of c like k; and the combinations sche and schi are pronounced skai, or skê, and skee. When, on the other hand, with an s before it, and with the vowels a, o, and u to follow, is to be pronounced not like skah, sko, skoo, but like sh, recourse must be had to the letter i, which is interposed between sc and a, o, and u, just as in those cases where, as we have seen, e standing by itself is to have the compressed sound of in church before a, o, and u; and the combinations thus arising, scia, scio, and sciu, will be pronounced shah, sho, and shoo. The previous observation holds good in this case likewise, that in more studied pronunciation the letter i is in these combinations slightly touched, though the voice must rapidly glide to the enunciation of the vowels a, o, and u. Examples:-Scarpe (skáhrr-pah), shoe; scoppiare (skop-pêeah-rai), to burst, crack: scuffia (skóof-feeah), a woman's cap; scherno (skérr-no), mockery: schifare (skee-fáh-rai), to avoid, to have an aversion for; sciamare (sklah-máh-rai), to exclaim; scrivere (skrée-vai-rai), to write: scelto (shél-to), selected; scevro (shái-vro), separated; sciam (sháh-mai), a swarm of bees; coscia (kô-shah), thigh; sciolta (shôl-to), ungirded; sciocco (shok-ko), stupid; asciutto (ah-shootto), dry.

The combinations gl, gn, and some others, I shall explain by notes, as they occur in the next pronouncing table, which illustrates several combinations of the letters c, g, and s.

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ahrr-tchê-rai

Biggin, a child's cap.
Sea-calves.
Fig-trees.

Leagues, alliances.
Lakes.

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The double, as well as the single z, may have the mild sound of the word adze (with which, by the bye, the ds in the word Windsor corresponds), or the hard sound of tz in Switzerind. According to modern orthography, the letter is generally doubled in the middle of words between two vowels, and the pronunciation of this zz scarcely differs from that of the Kingle. However, before diphthongs-as, for example, ia, ie, and ios must remain single, and has always, in such a case, the sharp sound. For example, ringraziare (rin-grah-tseeáh-rai), to thank; pigrizia (pee-grée-tseeah), idleness; inezie (ee-netseeai), follies; Bonifazio (Bo-nee-fáh-tseeo), Boniface.

Arciere

Arcione Acciuga

ahrr-tehó-nai aht-tchóo-gah

Bowman, archer. Saddle-bow, saddle. Anchovy.

No observation has yet been made in reference to the pronunciation of the double c (cc). This depends, as well as the pronunciation of double g (gg), on the vowel that follows the latter c. If that vowel is a, o, or u, the cc is sounded like a double k (kk) or ck. For examble, bocca (bók-kah), mouth; becco (bêk-ko), beak; accusare (ahk-koo-záh-rai), to accuse. If, however, that vowel which follows the letter cis e or i, the double e (cc) is sounded something like tch in the English word match, only perhaps stronger, and with vibration. On that account, I have tried to imitate the stronger sound of the cc by the letters ttch, placing the first t in the first syllable, and tch at the beginning of the second, just as I have attempted to imitate the sound of the gg by placing d in one syllable and j at the beginning of the next in such words as paggi (páhd-jee), pages, attendants. The remark with respect to the pronunciation of the gg, however, holds good of cc; the voice must not pause too long on the t of the syllable where the first c occurs, and glide as quickly as possible to the pronunciation of the second c, which must be very much vibrated. In this way a more equal distribution of the sound tch between the two syllables will be effected, which will produce the correct sound of the cc; and my imitation of that sound by ttch has no other object than to indicate to the reader the necessity of giving a stronger vibration to the cc. It is obvious that when cc is followed by consonants, it must be pronounced like k, just as the single c in the like case must be so pronounced. For example, acclamare (ahkklah-máh-rai), to elect by acclamation, to applaud; accrescere (ahk-krái-shai-rai), to increase, etc. the vowels e or i the letter h is interposed, the cc is also sounded like k, as well as the single c in such cases and for the same reasons, the h being a mere auxiliary letter to indicate that ce before e and i is not to have the sound of ttch, but of kk, as in chicchera (kik-kai-rah), a tea-cup; chiacchiera (keeáhk-keeai-rah), chit-chat.

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When between the cc and

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Ciuffo

tchoof-fo

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I grin, grinding the teeth.

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4. Cia, Cie, Cii, Cio, Ciu; Gia, Gie, Gii, Gio, Giu.

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sai-gwáh-tchai

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Aquario

ah-kwáh-reeo

Aquarius.

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Speech. Eagle.

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Ice, frost, cold.

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Italian.

Clava

Clero

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on the principle that the product of the divisor into the several
parts of the quotient is equal to the dividend. [Art. 92.]
107. Rule. Arrange the terms so that the letter which is in the
first term of the divisor shall also be in the first term of the
dividend. If this letter is repeated as a factor, either in the
divisor or dividend, or in both, the terms should be arranged in
the following order: put that term first which contains this letter
the greatest number of times as a factor; then the term containing
it the next greatest number of times, and so on.
EXAMPLE.-Divide 2aab + bbb + 2abb + aaa by aa+bb + ab.
If we take aa for the first term of the divisor, the other terms
must be arranged according to the number of times a is repeated
as a factor in each. Thus-
Dividend.

This is the first occurrence in these lessons of the important combination gl. It has two different sounds. When it is not followed by the letter i it has the sound of gl in gland, glebe, glory, glue; and this sound can offer no difficulty. But when the combination gl is followed by the letter i and one of the vowels a, e, o, and u, it is pronounced precisely as the double () in the French words bouilli, fille, gresiller, grenouille, bouillon, billard, billet, brouillon, feuillu, and, generally speaking, in all those words where the ll has after the vowel i a squeezed sound in the French language. They who are unacquainted with French may form a notion of this sound by separating and inverting the gl in the enunciation, that is, by pronouncing before the g, and changing the latter into y. Only the first must go to one syllable, and the second l along with the y, and with a squeezed sound to the beginning of the next, while care Divisor aa+ab+bb) aaa+2aab+2abb + bbb ( a + b Quotient must be taken that the voice should glide rapidly from one syllable to the other, by which means a more equal distribution of the squeezed sound lly will be produced, and a correct pronunciation of the gl effected. An approximation to this sound may be found in the English words million, miliary, biliary, billiards, seraglio, intaglio, and oglio. The letter i, between the combination gl and the vowels a, e, o, and u, is (as well as in the combinations cia, cio, ciu, and gia, gio, giu) a mere auxiliary letter, i.e., a mere soundless written sign, to indicate that gl before a, e, o, and u is not to have the sound of gl in gland, glebe, glory, and glue, but that squeezed sound, the imitation and description of which I have here attempted.

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For example: vaglio (váhl-lyo), a sieve; meglio (mêl-lyo), better; piglio píl-lyo), I take, seize; miscuglio (mis-kóol-lyo), mixture; svegliare (zvel-lyáh-rai), to awake; togliere (tel-lyairai), to take away; scegliere (shél-lyai-rai), to choose; doglia (dol-lyah), sorrows; bigliardo (bil-lyáhrr-do), billiards; biglietto (bil-lyét-to), note, bill; imbroglione (im-brol-lyó-nai), a meddling fellow; fogliuto (fol-lyoó-to), full of leaves. Egli, he; eglino, they; quegli, that one; gli (the plural of the article or the pronoun), with its numerous compositions, and gli, the final inflec tion or terminational syllable of nouns and verbs, have always the squeezed sound Uyee; while the mere syllable gli, at the commencement and in the middle of words, always has the sound of gl in gland, glebe, etc. The only exception is Angli, Englishmen, (pronounced áhn-glee). For example: figli (fil-lyee), Bous; fogli (fôl-lyee), leaves of paper; gigli (jíl-lyee), lilies; egligere (nai-glet-jai-rai), to neglect; negligente (nai-glee-jên-te), negligent; negligenza (nai-glee-jên-tsah), negligence; negligentare (nai-gloe-jen-táh-rai), to neglect.

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Here ar, the first term of the dividend, divided by a, the first tom of the divisor (Art. 92), gives c for the first term of the Aunt Multiplying the whole divisor by this term, we have the product ac be, which is to be subtracted from the two first tom of the dividend. The two remaining terms are then laught down as in arithmetical division, and the first of these divið. fret term of the divisor, as before, gives d for the in quotient. Then multiplying the whole the product ad + bd, which is to be submaining term of the dividend; as no revision is complete.

ests the following rule, which is founded

aaa+aab + abb

aab abbbbb
aab abbbbb

In division, it is necessary that the strictest attention be pai to the rules for the signs in subtraction, multiplication, an division. EXERCISE 8.

Perform the following exercises in division:

1. xx-2xy + yy + x − y.
2. aa- bb + a + b.

3. bb + 2bc + cc + b + c.

4. aaa + xxx + a + x.

5. 2ax

:

2аах 3aary+6aaaz + axy — xy + 2a-y.

6. ab-c-ax- bx + cx + a + b - c.

7. ac + be + ad + bd + 2 + a + b.

8. ad -ahbd- bh + y + dh.

108. From the preceding principles and examples we der the following

GENERAL RULES FOR DIVISION.

(1.) Division, in all cases, may be expressed by writing divisor under the dividend in the form of a fraction.

(2.) When the divisor and dividend are both simple quantit and have letters or factors common to each: divide the efficient of the divisor by that of the dividend, and cancel factors in the dividend which are equal to those in the divis

(3.) When the divisor is a simple, and the dividend a c pound quantity: divide each term of the dividend by divisor as before; setting down those terms which canno divided in the form of a fraction.

(4.) If the divisor and dividend are both compound quanti arrange the terms according to Art. 107.

(5.) To obtain the first term in the quotient, divide the term of the dividend by the first term of the divisor. Mul the whole divisor by the term placed in the quotient; sub the product from the dividend; and to the remainder! down as many of the following terms as shall be necessa continue the operation. Divide again by the first term divisor, and proceed as before, till all the terms of the divi are brought down. If the signs in the divisor and dividen alike, the quotient will be +; if unlike, the quotient will b

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6. Divide amy + 3my may + am -
d by
7. Divide ard 6a+ 2r hd + 6 by 2ard.
8. Divide 6ax - 8+ 2xy + 4 - 6hy by 4axy.

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9. Divide 16abcæ 12xyab + 24abrd 36ahgb by 4ab.
10. Divide 21aaby + 42cdzaa + 14aaa -35aaaab by 7aa.
11. Divide 12abxyz - 6hdabay + 24xyabm by 3abzy.
12. Divide 3ax - 36bx+42-72cx + 30ax by 3x.
13. Divide 40ab 4(x + y) + 72 + 12 (a + b) + 48c by
14. Divide abz· cdx+8gx + x by abcd + 89 +1.
15. Divide 24xyz
36cd 48abcd by 12xyz - 18cd
16. Divide - ab - ad + ax (a + b) — 42axy + ab by
17. Divide 6am - 10ah+20 12cd + 17a by
18. Divide xyz + 6x + 2z − 1 + 2xyz (a + b) by 6xyz.
19. Divide -6ac12bc 6ab- 102aabbee by
20. Divide 18abyx + 16abx - 20bbom + 24ab by 2b.
21. Divide 16r 24+8a +81- 20ar - a by 4.

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11. Divide 81+ 24x3 by 3x2 + 2x.

12. Divide 3+ a3 by z2 + a2.

13. Divide 10y - 23ay + 4a2y by 5y♦ — 4ay3 + a3y1.

14. Divide 72-26x+50x274x+35 by a3-3x2 + 5x-7.
15. Divide 2

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16. Divide z by z2 + 2x + 1.

17. Divide

by z2-2x+1.

18. Divide - 8x+7 by x2 - 3x + 2.

4y.

19. Divide 5a4 6ax3-2a3xa* by x2 - ax + a2.

20. Divide z-3x2y2 + 3x2v+

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21. Divide 337x + 35x3 + 7x2 + 2 by x + 3xa
4ab3 + 463c

θαύει

9be3 by 3a-2b+3c.
2. Divide 94 + 9a2bc
23. Divide 43 + 3ab + 3aba + 263 + 3b3c + 3bc2 + c3 by a + 2b + c.
24. Divide 425 23+ 4x by 2x2 + 3x + 2.
25. Divide a 9x+8x1o by 1

10

- 2x + x2.

GREATEST COMMON MEASURE.

109. A common measure of two or more quantities is a quantity which will divide or measure each of them without remainder. [Art. 30.] Thus 2d is a common measure of 124, 6d, 8d, etc.

110. The greatest common measure of two or more quantities s the greatest quantity which will divide these quantities withcot a remainder. Thus 6d is the greatest common measure of 12 and 18d; and 8 is the greatest commou measure of 16, 24,

and 32.

measure of two given

Ill. To find the greatest common quantities. Bale-Divide the greater of the given quantities by the less, the divisor by the remainder, and every successive divisor by its Ora remainder, until nothing remains; the last divisor will be the Testest common measure.

112. To find the greatest common measure of three or more quantities.

Pu-Find the greatest common measure of any two of them; thes the greatest common measure of that one and another of the j-antities, and so on, till all the quantities have been employed in peration; the last divisor is the greatest common measure. The greatest common measure of two quantities is not altered by multiplying or dividing either of them by any quantity which * 20t a divisor of the other, and which contains no factor which ie & divisor of the other.

If either be multiThe common measure of ab and ac is a. fed by d, the common measure of abd and ac, or ab and acd, till a On the other hand, if ab and acd are the given antities, the common measure is a; and if acd be divided by 4 the common measure of ab and ac is a.

113. Hence, in finding the common measure by division, the ¿visor may often be rendered more simple by dividing it by e quantity which does not contain a divisor of the dividend. the dividend may be multiplied by a factor, which does not ucian a measure of the divisor.

EXAMPLE. Find the greatest common measure of 6a2 + 11ax 3x2. + and 6a2 + 7 az

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ab2 and a2 + 2ab + b2. 9. Find the greatest common measure of a3 LEAST COMMON MULTIPLE. more quantities is a 114. A common multiple of two or quantity which can be divided by each of them without a remainder. Thus 12ab is a common multiple of 4a and 6b; or of 3a and 2b, etc.

115. The least common multiple of two or more quantities is the least quantity which can be divided by each of them without a remainder. Thus 12abc is the least common multiple of 4a, 3b, and 6c.

116. To find the least common multiple of two or more given quantities.

Rule.-Reduce the given quantities to their prime factors; find the least common multiple required. the product of the greatest powers of these factors, and it will be

EXAMPLE. - Find the least common multiple of (a + x)2, a2x2, and (a — x)2.

Here, the prime factors of the quantities are (a + x)2, (a + x), powers of a +x and a-x, the first and last contain their (ax), and (a—x)2; now of these factors, which are different highest powers; therefore, according to rule, (a + x)2 (a — x)2 (a2x2) is the least common multiple of the quantities required.

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