Singular. τοσουτο (ν). Nom. τοσουτος, Gen. Dat. Acc. τοσούτου, τοσαυτη, τοσούτου. τοσουτο (ν). Plural. τοσαυτα. τοσαύταις, τοσούτοις. τοσαύτας, τοσαυτα. fore, in this branch of drawing, we advise our pupils to take it τοιούτος, τοιαύτη, τοιούτο, such; τηλικουτος, τηλικούτη, τηλι separately; that is, to make especial drawings and studies with- κουτο, so old, so great. Remark, however, that the neuter sinout any additional landscape. They will find that figure-draw-gular, besides the form in -o, has a form in -ov. ing will require a very close and undivided attention. Afterwards, from a well-stocked portfolio of these studies, selections may be made and employed according to the nature of the subject for special purposes. Many artists are never without their pocket sketch-book and pencil, with which they are always prepared to note down groups of figures, animals, boats, wagons, farm implements, or anything that may be considered of sufficient importance to introduce into a picture. As a preparation for this course of study, we strongly recommend the practice of drawing from simple objects, which can be conveniently and readily obtained. With regard to the practical treatment of trees, which to beginners are the most difficult passages in landscape, we would refer our pupils to Lessons in Drawing, ΧΙΙΙ., Vol. I., page 391 ; No. XIV., Vol. II., page 7; No. XV., page 39'; and No. XVI., page 72. They will there find all the instruction that is necessary for their guidance. In conclusion, we wish to say a few words to those who really possess a desire to excel in drawing from Nature, and to urge them never to let an occasion pass by which can afford them an opportunity for gathering facts and ideas in reference to their art. Constant observation is highly important. It is not absolutely necessary to be always drawing. The mind can at all times gather hints which are valuable. It is not the forms of objects only which must engross their attention. There are effects and combinations everywhere to be seen, which must be thoughtfully contemplated and stored up for practical use; and if a free and correct manner of drawing has been acquired, the pleasure of being able to use it successfully for the purpose of depicting the beauties of Nature will far more than compensate the student for the labour he has bestowed, or the trouble and anxiety he has experienced in overcoming the difficulties encountered in his progress. Nom. τοσούτοι, The pronoun αυτός, -η, -o, signifies either he himself ipse, ipsa, ipsum), or performs the office of the oblique cases of the personal pronoun, third person, singular and plural, as him, her, it, them. In union with the article, thus forming δ' αυτός, ή αυτή, το αυτό, it signifies the same (in Latin, idem, eadem, ĭdem). The article by crasis mingles with the pronoun, making one word-thus, ὁ αυτος = αύτος, and in the feminine and neuter αὕτη, ταύτο, commonly ταὐτον; but as the crasis does not extend throughout, I give the pronoun in full. τοις αυτοις, etc. III. THE RELATIVE PRONOUN ós, n, d, who. Plural. Dual. Nom. ός, ή, δ. οί, αἱ, å. ů. Gen. Dat. Plural. Acc. δν, ἦν, δ. The interrogative pronouns, such as ποιος, of what kind ? | kind, etc. They may be arranged under the heads of interroπέσος, how great ? ποτερος, which (of two) ? in becoming indefirite and dependent, take ὁ before them : thus, όποιος, of whatever Εὐμα; όποσος, οf whatever magnitude, όποτερος, whichever. The negative compounds of τις--namely, ουτις, ουτι, μητις, μήτι, το one, nothing-follow the simple τιs, thus : ουτις, ουτινος, αντίνι, αυτίνα, ούτι, ουτινες, ουτινα, etc. εστιν. ανηρ general. Τροπος, -ου, δ, a manner, mode of life, character. Φροντίζω, Ι take anxious care for; with acc., desire, pursue. EXERCISE 68.-GREEK-ENGLISH. 2. Η γνωμη 1. '0 οὗτος (οι οὗτος ὁ ανηρ) αγαθος εστιν. αύτη (οι αὕτη ἡ γνωμη) δικαια εστιν. 3. Η γυνη ἡδε (or ὧδε ή γυνη) καλη εστιν. 4. Ο ανηρ εκείνος (οι εκείνος δ' ανηρ) βασιλευς 5. Ο βασιλευς αυτός (or αυτος ὁ βασιλευς) στρατηγος εστιν. 6. Φερε αυτῷ, ω παι, την κλειν. 7. Ενιοι περι των αυτών της αυτής ημερας ου ταύτα γιγνωσκουσιν. 8. Το λεγειν και το πράττειν ου ταύτον εστιν. 9. Ταυτα τα ρόδα, & θάλλει εν τῷ κήπο, καλά εστιν. 10. Σοφον τι χρημα ὁ άνθρωπος εστιν. 11. Et φιλίαν του (for τινος) διώκεις, τον τρόπον αυτου εξεταζε. 12. Τίς γράφει ταυτην την επιστολήν; 13. Λεγε μοι όστις ταυτην την επιστολήν γράφει. 14. Ων (by attraction for &) έχεις, τούτων άλλοις παρέχου (communicate to others (some) of those things which you have). 15. Ολβιος εστιν ᾧ παίδες φιλοι εισιν. 16. Εκείνος ολβιώτατος, στῷ (for φτινι) μηδεν κακον εστιν. 17. Τί φροντίζεις; 18. Ου λεγω ότι φροντίζω. 19. Οίον το εθος έκαστον, τοιούτος ὁ βιος. 20. Τίς εστιν εκείνη ἡ γυνη; 21. Λέγε μοι, ήτις εστιν εκείνη ἡ γυνη. There are some things in this exercise on which a few words seem desirable. First advert to an exemplification of an enclitie, as seen in the words σοφον τι (10). T is here an instance of an enclitic; first observe it comes after σοφον, and then observe that it is so connected with it as that the two are pronounced together, almost or quite as if they were one word : thus, σοφοντι. In consequence of this, τι receives the name of enclitic; and for the same reason, losing its own accent, it throws it back on the preceding word: thus, σοφόν τι. gative, indefinite, demonstrative, relative, and dependent pronouns. Thus, πόσος, how much? (Latin, quantus?) asks a question which is answered by τόσοs, so much (tantus); ποσος may also signify of some size (aliquantus), and so become indefinite; and if we wish to say "I know not how much," we employ dros or όποσος, and so call into use a relative and dependent form, τηλικούτος, of that age. It is almost The enclitic ye is appended to the personal pronouns of the first and second person, so as to give force and prominence to the word, as εγωγε, εμοιγε, εμουγε, εμεγε, συγε, etc. impossible to give an English equivalent for γε, for by this, as well as by other particles, the Greeks expressed shades of meaning to which we have no counterparts; ye, however, may be approximatively rendered by at least, or but, sometimes by yes, as in athrmative sentences. The particles δη, δηποτε, and our are added to the interrogative and indefinite pronouns, as well as to oros, in order to generalise their application, that is, to make them apply to everything included in the idea they convey, having a force similar to our ever, soever, etc., as in whatsoever, whosoever, how much soever, etc.: for example, όστισδη, όστισδηποτε, όστισουν, ἡτισουν, ὁτιουν, whoever, whosoever, whosoever it may be, etc. (Latin, quicunque); genitive, οὑτινόσουν οι ὁτουουν, ἡστινόσουν; dative, φτινιουν οι δτῳουν, etc. ; so also, ὁποσοσδη, ὁποσοσουν, ὁποσοσδήποτε, how greater soever (Latin, quantuscunque); genitive, ὁποσουδή, ὁποσησδε, ὁποσουουν, ὁποσήσουν, ὁποσουδήποτε, ὁποίησε δηποτε. The enclitic Tep is subjoined to relatives, in order to raise the relative import into a demonstrative, or to give emphasis, as όσπερ, ήπερ, όπερ, who indeed, so όσοσπερ, οἷοσπερ; also, όθιπερ, and όθενπερ. The inseparable demonstrativum, demonstrative iota, is affixed to demonstratives as well as to some adverbs, to augment the demonstrative force, being equivalent to our vulgar there, as in "which man do you mean? this man? "No, that man there.” This use of i resembles the Latin ce, as in hicce, and the French ci, as in celui-ci. Neuter. You see, in these exercises, the free use made by the Greeks of the article: thus, they say δ ανηρ οὗτος, ἡ γυνη εκείνη, οὗτος ὁ παις, τούτο το πραγμα (er το πραγμα τουτο), that is, the woman this, or this the woman, for this woman; sometimes, as when emphasis is sought, we have such a construction as the Sing. Ν. ούτοσι,that man; αὕτη, that woman; τουτι, that thing. following, δ ανηρ ὁ οὗτος, the man, the this. 8. 1. These men are good. 2. Those opinions are just. 3. The children of this woman are beautiful. 4. Those roses are beautiful. 5. The father himself writes the letter. 6. His son (the son of him) is wise. 7. His daughter is beautiful. children of the same parents are often different. 10. This rose which blooms in the garden is beautiful. Masculine. Gen. τουτους; Dat. τούτῳι; Plur. Ν. ούτοιι; Feminine. ταύτησι ; ταύτης; αὗταιι; ταυτι. So in ὁδι, ἡδι, τοδί, from ὁδε; οὕτωσι, from οὕτως; ενθαδι, νυνι, δευρι. KEY TO EXERCISES IN LESSONS IN GREEK.-XIX. 1. I write, but thou playest. 2. I worship thee, Ο mighty Jove. 5. God ever 3. Ο son, hear me. 4. My father is very dear to me. sees thee. 7. I am stronger than you. 9. 6. If you injure me, you differ nothing from my enemies. 8. Gladly do I obey thee, O father. 11. God affords us We rejoice with you. 10. The lyre delights you. many good things. 12. The father loveth you. 13. Fight manfully, O soldiers, for it is your duty to guard the city; for if you fly, all the city is destroyed. 14. It is your duty, Ο boys, to learn your letters earnestly. 15. The mother loves us. 16. Ours is an evil disease. 17. Ye have a most trusty friend. 18. The father gratifies you, for you learn your letters well. 19. O lord, listen to me. EXERCISE 63.-ENGLISH-GREEK. 1. Ημεις μεν γραφομεν, ὑμεις δε παιζετε. 2. Νω μεν γράφετών, τα 5. tha I admire those beautiful roses; bring them to me. 9. The παίζετον. 3. Ὑμας τιμω, ες των ακους, ω παι, CORRELATIVE PRONOUNS are such as express a mutual relation one to another, as is 16 Σ thine own. EXERCISE 64.-GREEK-ENGLISH. 1. Life brings many painful things with it. 2. Know thyself. 3. Wish to please all, not thyself alone. 4. The wise man carries about his property in himself. 5. Utter the praise of thy friends rather than 6. Virtue is honourable in itself. 7. The greedy enrich themselves, but injure others. 8. The incontinent are not only injurious to others without being profitable to themselves, but are doers of evil to others, but most so to themselves. 9. We gratify ourselves most. 10. The gods are free from envy, even amongst one another. 11. Bad men injure one another. EXERCISE 65.-ENGLISH-GREEK. 1. Οἱ σοφοι περιφέρουσι τα πράγματα εν ἑαυτοις. 2. Ο πλεονεκτης αυτον πλουτίζει αλλους δε βλαπτει. 3. Υμας χαρίζεσθε. 4. Ο ακρατης ουκ έστι τους μεν άλλοις βλαβερος, ἑαυτῷ δε ωφέλιμος, αλλα κακούργος μεν των άλλων, ἑαυτου δε πολυ κακουργότερος. 5. Αγαθοι παίδες, αλλήλους στέργετε, EXERCISE 66.-GREEK-ENGLISH. GRAMMALOGUES. 66. Phonography may be written either IN FULL OF IN BRIEF. Full Phonography signifies the expression of every vowel and consonant in a word by its shorthand letter. In Abbreviated Phonography every word of frequent occurrence is represented by one or more of its prominent letters. These words are called GRAMMALOGUES, or LETTER-WORDS, and the letters that represent them are called LogoGRAMS, or WORD-LETTERS. Thus, each of the following words in line 1 is represented by the under-written shorthand letter in line 2, which letter forms part of the word when written in full, as in line 3: 1. of, to, for, be, are, have, which, from. 2. 3. 67. There are two Styles of Abbreviated Phonography; the First is used in correspondence, and for general purposes; and the Second is employed by reporters. They differ chiefly in the number of grammalogues employed. In the First or Corresponding Style about 150 are used, but the pupil will not require more than the two dozen given below, in the present stage of his progress. 68. The stroke-vowels aw, o, oo, are used as logograms in each of The dashes represent the common these directions ST. words and, he; these signs being serviceable in Phraseography, where the vowel dots of these words could not be used. The series of vowel grammalogues is— all, too, two; oh, owe, he; awe, who; of, to; on, but; and, should. Three of these, two, on, should, which are not of frequent occurrence, vowel sounds, owe, awe) are represented in the following list. 57. From the pr series of double consonants, a series of treble the learner may write in full for the present. The others (except the consonants is formed by making the hook into a circle; thus for subscribe, superskibe for superscribe. are be 70. The words marked (*) are written above the line; the others rest upon the line. A dash (written upward) is used for and, because the dot vowel of the word is required for a, and a dash may be joined to other words in reporting. For the same reason a stroke 62. After t and d, the circle may be turned to the right in order rather than a dot is used for he. When the upward r is written to form the treble consonants skr, sgr; thus 63. In the combinations dsk, dsg, the circle is written on the other side; thus, desk, Lo disguise. 64. S is joined to a consonant of the pl series thus, supply, settle, P saddle, f e sickle, 65. Occasionally it is more convenient to write the single consonants than to use a double letter of the pl and pr series; thus, is the best form for sensible. EXERCISE 16. by itself, it should make an angle of 60 degrees with the perpendi cular; and ch, when standing alone, should make an angle of 30 degrees. That is written by the sign for th shortened, the rule for which will be explained in a future lesson. THE CIRCLE S. 71. As the reading of the circle s, when joined to another consonant, commonly occasions some difficulty to the learner, it may be well to repeat the rule that applies to it. suffer. Write with the spr character:-Sprain, sprat, sprawl, spray, spread, spree, sprig, sprightly, spring, sprinkle, spright, spruce. Write with the str character:-Strain, straight, strand, strange, strangle, strap, straw, stray, streak, stream, street, strength, stress, stretch, stride, strife, strike, string, strip, stripe, strive, stroke, stroll, strong, strop, struggle, strut. Write with the skr character:-Scramble, scrap, scrape, scratch, scrawl, scream, screech, screen, screw, scribble, scribe, scrip, scroll, scrub, scruple, scrutiny. 74. The affix ing is expressed by a light dot at the end of a word; one who wanted a helping hand, they would say a good word in thushis favour, and recommend them to "Try." There was once on a time a good little dwarf named "Try," who was so powerful that he overcame every thing that he attempted; and yet was so small that people laughed when they were told of his wondrous powers. But the tiny man was so kind at heart, and loved so much to serve those who were less able than himself, that he would go and beg of those who knew him better, to intercede for him, that he might be allowed to help them out of their troubles; and when once he had made them happy by his noble deeds, they no longer despised him, or drove him away with sneers, but loved him as their best friend. Yet the only return this good dwarf sought for all his services, was, that when they knew any The student is now prepared to write the following easy sentences in shorthand. To assist him in the selection of the shorthand letters, we have placed the corresponding phonotypes under each word, except the grammalogues. The vowel sounds that are necessary to be expressed are put in italic. It is not necessary to write every vowel in shorthand. The downward L, R, and H, are marked by small capitals. The common "1" "r," and "h," therefore signify the upstrokes for these letters. When two consonants are placed together, without a space between, as "br, pl," the hooked double letters given in the last lesson are to be used. Write the consonants first, according to the Key placed underneath each word, and then fill in the vowels. Observations:-1. Write the upward w. When the pupil is more vanced, and can employ a larger number of grammalogues, the upward w alone will represent this word. 2. Place the second vowel (i) before 6, in the third place, and not under n. 3. Write the double-size circle for ses. 4. Write the downward w. consonant, as a logogram, will represent the whole word. In a more advanced style of writing, this Men are more what they are used to, than what they are born to; mer wot de vst for men custom is a second nature. kostom sekond netur dan wot de The best time is now, the best place is here. best tim ny best ples Bir born English. Mewing of cats. Gnidus, a town of Caria. Nobody, not one. Sign. Swan, cygnet. Fist, cuff, I fight. To push. Known. Sir. Everybody. 8. Sca, Sce, Sci, Sco, Scu. V.-PRONUNCIATION OF THE LETTERS C, G, S, IN COMBINATION WITH OTHER LETTERS (continued). 7. Gna, Gne, Gni, Gno, Gnu. Gn is a combination almost as important as gl. G before n must never be omitted to be sounded, as in the English words gnaw, gnat, etc.; but Englishmen are apt to forget this, and to sound the combination gn in several foreign languages as if no g was before the n. The combination gn must, likewise, never be sounded as gn in the English words signify, malignity, assignation, physiognomy, cognisance, and so on. Those who know French will be able to sound gn at once by bearing in mind the correct pronunciation of gn in the French words mignon, mignard, peigner, oignon, etc., with which the Italian pronunciation of gn exactly agrees. Those who do not understand French may form a notion of the sound by the same operation pointed out in my explanation of the sound of gl. They must, as it were, sound the n before the g, and change the latter into y; only taking care that the voice should glide rapidly from n to y, and squeeze, as it were, these two letters into one very mild enunciation. Indeed, this very mild enunciation of the squeezed sound gn is a peculiarity of the Italian language, and among foreigners, Germans, who have no corresponding sound, rarely arrive at a correct pronunciation of the gn. The English have words, the pronunciation of which may be said to be an approximation to the Italian sound; as, for example, bagnio, seignior, poignant, champignon, Spaniard, and, perhaps, most of all, in the word cognac; and therefore Englishmen may, without much difficulty, arrive at a correct pronunciation, never losing sight of the peculiar squeezed and mild sound of the Italian gn. I shall try to imitate the sound gn by the letters nny in a similar way to that in which I have imitated the sound gl before and another vowel by the letters lly; and where in Italian words the gn occurs in the middle and at the end, the first n must go in some respect to one syllable, and the second n along with the y to the next; the voice rapidly gliding from one of those syllables to the other in the way I have already stated. For example, campagna (pronounced kahm-páhn-nyah), country; vegnente (ven-nyên-tai), future, next; Giugno (joón-nyo), June; gnocchi (nyok-kee), small dumplings, clowns; scrigno (skrínnyno), bunch, a coffer; Spagnuolo (Spahn-nyooô-lo), a Spaniard. I must not omit the remark that foreigners, in Italian pronunciation, are apt to confound the two combinations gn and ng as though they were the same. This is not the case. In uttering gn, the g must be converted into y and sounded after n; while in uttering ng, the g retains the natural sound depending on the vowel that follows. In uttering gn, then, which is heard before the g, has its natural sound; while in uttering ng, n has a kind of nasal sound. Further, the combination gn always retains its peculiar sound irrespective of the vowels that may follow, which is illustrated in the pronouncing table below; while in the combination ng, g has the sound of the English g in get before the vowels a, o, and u, and the sound of the English j before the vowels e and i. For example: Giugno (joón-nyo), June, and giungo (joón-go), I arrive, I join; agnolo (áhn-nyo-lo), angel, and angelo (áhn-jai-lo), angel; pugno (poón-nyo), fist, cuff, I fight, and pungo (poón-go), I sting. As a last remark on the gn, I have to note that when gn is followed by the letter i, it is a sign that gni is to form a syllable by itself; and the i in such cases is never a mere auxiliary letter-never a mere soundless written sign to indicate that gn is to have a squeezed sound, because, as I have stated, gn has naturally, and without any exception, a squeezed sound. This is quite different in the combination gl, and makes the essential difference between the combinations gl and gn. The reader will not have forgotten my remarks in the preceding lesson, that when gl is followed by the vowels a, e, o, Ognuno I have repeatedly in these lessons marked the combinations gua, gue, gui, quo, and the combinations qua, que, qui, quo, with "gwah..." and " qwah. . ." I must, however, warn the reader not to give to the w in these cases the full and legitimate sound of the English w, which is peculiar to the English language. I might have marked these combinations. "gvah . . ." and "qvah .," and so they are marked by the distinguished grammarian, Abate Flario Casarotti, and other writers on Italian grammar; but the Italian v is a softer sound than the English -a kind of medium sound between the w and the English v. On this account I have thought it more advisable to mark these combinations with w instead of v, and if the reader will avoid the peculiarity of the pronunciation of the English (pronounced with a forward motion and instant withdrawal of the lips), pronouncing it more like a softer v, he will approach the true sound. Squillo Risqusto Inclito |