M. A. C. L. Maison assurée contre House insured against fire. l'incendie. Dealer, shopkeeper, m. Nota Bene. Our Lady. North-north-west. Merchant, m. Number. Our Lord. N. S. J.-C. Notre-Seigneur Jésus. Our Lord Jesus Christ. West. West-north. West-south. Reverend father. His or Hor Imperial Highness. His Most Serene Highness. His Eminence. His Excellency. His Grace (to a Bishop). His or Her Britannic Majesty. His Royal Majesty. His Swedish Majesty. GEOMETRICAL PERSPECTIVE.-XIII. AT the foot of the enunciations of several of the problems, we His Highness (the Turkish Sultan). applied to the 1 inch scale for the drawing in hand. S.M. T. F. Sa Majesté Très-Fidèle. His Most Faithful Majesty. S. O. Sud-ouest. South-west. Holy Father. The Holy Fathers. His Holiness. South-south-west. KEY TO EXERCISES IN LESSONS IN FRENCH. EXERCISE 149 (Vol. III., page 29). 1. Does that arrangement suit you? 2. It does not suit me, but it suits our relation. 3. Does not that displease the painter? 4. Your conduct displeases him much. 5. Do you not fear abusing your friend's patience? 6. I fear to abuse it. 7. Do you never think of your duties? 8. I think of them every day. 9. Have you thought of your brother to-day ? 10. I have thought of him, and have remembered his goodness. 11. Has he taken care of his father, and has he obeyed him? 12. He obeys him constantly. 13. Has he never disobeyed him ? 14. He has disobeyed him several times, but he grieves 15. Do you not thank them for their kindness? 16. I thank them with all my heart. 17. Has the saddler congratulated you for your success? 18. He has congratulated me. 19. Have you not laughed at our misfortune? 20. We have not laughed at it; we never laugh at the misfortunes of others. 21. Do you not remember the 1. N'avez-vous pas abusé de la complaisance de votre ami? 2. Jo n'ai pas abusé de sa complaisance, j'ai abusé de sa patience. 3. Votre conduite ne déplait-elle pas à vos parents? 4. Ma conduite ne leur plait pas. 5. Pourquoi n'avez-vous pas obéi à M. votre père ? lui ai obéi. 7. N'avez-vous pas ri de mes erreurs ? 8. Je n'ai pas ri 9. Le jeune homme a-t-il ri des erreurs du peintre? 10. Il n'a pas ri de ses erreurs. 11. Votre sellier a-t-il ri des malheurs de votre cousin? 12. Il n'a pas ri de ses malheurs. 13. Riez-vous jamais des malheurs d'autrui ? 14. Nous ne rions jamais des malheurs de notre prochain. 15. Vous souvenez-vous de la leçon que vous avez apprise hier? 16. Je ne m'en souviens pas. 17. Cette demoiselle ressemble-t-elle à sa mère ? 18. Elle ne ressemble pas à sa mère. Avez-vous remercié votre ami de sa complaisance? 20. Je l'en ai As there is no necessity to explain all the process of construction from the commencement, we will merely refer to the leading lines and their positions, with whatever additional instruction may be necessary for this particular class of subjects. ab two feet to the right of the eye; b c one foot within; e o the retiring diagonal line, o its VP and DO its distance-point. Let the line of contact be drawn from e, the point of contact of the diagonal line, because all the heights of the parts of the pedestal must be measured upon it and drawn towards its VP; that is, they are to be taken from the elevation, B, on the line e n, where all the lines of the mouldings are produced for this purpose, and then transferred to the line of contact, e n, of the perspective view. It will be noticed that the horizontal projections of the mouldings beyond each other are brought down by perpendicular lines to the plan, A; these must be taken from the plan, commencing at the outer angle, d, along the diagonal line, and repeated upon the PP thus :-Draw a line from DO through w to the PP in d, make d m equal to d m of the plan, and rule from m back again to DO; from where this line cuts the diagonal, draw a perpendicular; this will give the near angle of the faces of the pedestal. Let this be considered as a rule, that all the various projections of mouldings, of whatever kind, are brought down to the diagonal of the plan, and treated as we have shown by the construction from m. The upper PP must be drawn through n on the line of contact, and all the points of measurement that have to be made upon it, together with all the lines to be drawn from these points, must be produced and carried out precisely in the same way as when they are arranged upon and taken from the PP of the base. Our next consideration, which is also an important one, will be the use of half-distance points. It not unfrequently occurs that the lengths of the lines representing the object are so great that we are unable, from want of sufficient room on the paper, to mark them on the PP for the purpose of cutting them off their respective vanishing-lines, guided by their true distance-point. When such is the case, we have recourse to the use of half-distance points. Our pupils are aware how a distancepoint is found for any given vanishing-point. If the space on the HL between the VP and its DVP be bisected, the middle point thus found will be the half-distance point. To explain and illustrate the construction and application of this very useful principle in perspective, we have employed only a single line. PROBLEM XXXVIII. (Fig. 62).-On reference to the figure, it will be seen that c d is the perspective view of a line at an angle of 35° with the PP, the real length of which is a b, from which lines are drawn in the usual way to the DVP, to determine c d on the vanishing-line. Find the half-distance point by the bisection explained above, mark it DVP, and draw from it a line through c to n; take half the length of the given line to be represented, and set it off from n to f, rule from ƒ to DVP. It will be seen that the two lines from n and f pass through the same points c and d to the DVP, which were originally found by the two lines from a and b to the DVP. Suppose it were necessary to represent a line double, or of a greater length than a b; in this instance we will take double the length to show the advantage of parallel with the HL) to meet the corresponding retiring lines of the opposite retiring wall; thus will be determined the further end upon which are fixed the folding doors A and B. How to find their vanishing-points and cut off their widths, we trust it will not be necessary to repeat, but merely remark that vpl is the VP for the door A, VP for the door B, and VP for c. To ascertain the vanishing-point for the retiring thickness of a door, it will be found by drawing a line from E to the HL at a right angle with the line of its VP; for example, vp2 is the VP for the retiring thickness of the door A. With regard to drawing the true position of the door at the side, there may be a difficulty not yet explained. Here is a case, which frequently occurs, of a line or plane at an angle or inclination with something else than the picture-plane. In the case before us, a door is stated to be at a given angle with its wall, whilst at the same time the wall is at a right angle with the PP. The difficulty is how to find the VP for the door. The proposition states that it is at an angle of 40° with its own wall. The difficulty will not be great if we know the angle to the PP of the intermediate plane to which the given object is inclined; because, if the wall D (see Fig. 64) upon which the door swings is at a right angle with the wall F, and c, the door, is at an angle of 40° with this principle of construction. Make ƒ m equal to fn, and rule from m to the DVP, it will cut the vanishing line in e; c e will then be the perspective length of a line equal to twice a b. Our pupils will see that it is impossible, from want of space, to double the length of a b on the PP, and so carry a line from the extreme to the DVP; had there been sufficient room to mark the full length, a would have been the line to the DVP to determine the length of ce. As we shall have occasion to avail ourselves of the half-distance point in some of our future queslions, we advise our pupils to exercise themselves in this problem, employing various lengths of lines at various angles. PROBLEM XXXIX. (Fig. 63).-The interior of a room in parallel perspective; the retiring portion in view is 16 feet long, 19 feet wide, and 12 feet high. Distance of the eye from the pictureplane 12 feet, and its height from the ground 4 feet. At the further end are folding doors 10 feet high, and 4 feet wide; also a single door at the side, the height and width of which are the same. The door A is at an angle of 32° with the connecting wall, the door B at an angle of 67°, and c at an angle of 40° with its wall, and 5 feet from the further corner of the room. In this case the PS will be the VP for the retiring walls on both sides; the width of the room is marked off from a to b on the PP and ruled to the PS; the height is a d and bf; the depth to be represented, viz., 16 feet, is set off from a to c, and a line from c to DE will cut off the length of the room in the point n on the line from a to po from this point n a perpendicular line is to be drawn to rethe corner of the room, to meet the lines from d and f from this perpendicular draw lines across (that is, D, therefore c will be at an angle of 50° with F; but ri parallel with the PP, therefore the door c will be at an angle of 50° with the PP. Consequently, we shall find the VP of the door (Fig. 63) by drawing a line from E at 50° with the P producing VP. To find its distance from the corner of th room at n, mark the point e 5 feet from c, rule from e to D and where this line cuts the line from a to rs will be found th position of that side of the doorway upon which the do swings: the heights of the doors are set off from o. 1 PROBLEM XL. (Fig. 65).-A box 6 feet long, 3 feet wide, an foot 6 inches high, inclined to the picture at an angle of $7 The lid is open and thrown back at an angle of 45° with the pe pendicular. Thickness of wood, 2 inches. Depth of lid, 6 inch Distance of the eye from the picture-plane, 6 feet, and its heig from the ground 2 feet 6 inches. The nearest angle to touch t picture-plane. Seale, 3 inch to the foot. If the lid is at an angle of 45° with the perpendicular, it w be at the same angle with the horizon; therefore, as vp is VP for the end of the box, the angle of inclination must be ma from DVP2. To cut off the retiring length of the lid, the line contact must be drawn from c n to h, and then from DVP dr a line through the corner of the box joining the lid to a; m a b equal to the width of the box, and rule from b back again the DVP3. For the depth of the lid draw from DVP' to n on line of contact; make n c equal to the depth 6 inches, and d back again as before. As the other parts of the construet are the same which have been repeatedly explained in previ problems, we leave the remainder as an exercise for practice LESSONS IN GREEK.-XXIII. THE VERB-GENERAL EXPLANATIONS-THE SUBSTANTIVE VERB ειμι, I AM. Ir we examine the proposition δ στρατιωτης εστιν αγαθος, the soldier is good, we shall see that it consists of three parts: SσтраTIWτns, the soldier, is what is termed the subject of the proposition; that is, it is that of which something is asserted or declared. Ayados, good, is the attribute, or that quality which is asserted of the subject soldier. The word eσTv, is, which connects the subject and attribute together (hence called the copula), is the verb, so named because it is the principal word in the proposition-without a verb there could be no proposition: its essential function is to affirm or declare something of the The subject; thus, here it affirms of the soldier that he is good. term predicate is applied by some grammarians to the attribute alone, by others to the copula and attribute together, thus :Copula. Predicate. or Subject. ὁ στρατιωτης Subject. δ στρατιώτης εστιν Verb. εστιν αγαθος. Predicate. Attribute. αγαθος. Very often the verb forms by itself the predicate of a proposition, and contains both the copula and the attribute; that is, the verb by itself makes the affirmation: thus Avw, I loose, where loosing is predicated or affirmed of the subject I. Here the subject is a pronoun, and as the personal pronoun is not used in Greek, except for emphasis, since the person intended is marked by the termination of the verb, the subject may be involved in and expressed by the word itself, as Avw, I loose. Accordingly, in Greek as in Latin, a verb may contain in itself the subject, the copula, and the predicate; in other words, it may comprise both predicate and subject. 1. λυω, 2. λυομαι, 3. λυομαι, VOICES. I loose, I loose myself, Active. Passive. Middle. Here we have a verb in three forms; the first form is called the active voice, the second form is called the passive voice, the third form is called the middle voice. In the active voice, the subject acts; in the passive voice, the subject is acted upon; in the middle voice, the action comes back upon the subject, that is, the subject is both acting and acted upon. It is called middle because it stands in sense midway between active and passive, partaking of the signification of both. These varieties, it will be noticed, are varieties in both form and meaning. Thus Auw, the active, differs in form from Avoμai, the middle. It differs also in signification; for while Auw sig. nifies I loose, Avoμal signifies I loose myself. Verbs in the active voice are either transitive or intransitive: they are called transitive when the action passes on to and acts upon something which is called the object, as λυω τον ανθρωπον, I loose the man, where the object aveрwπov is acted upon by the subject of Avw. In an intransitive verb the action does not pass on to an object, as aλλw, I bloom. It is obvious that an intransitive verb can have no passive voice. Some intransitive verbs, however, are found with a middle voice, inasmuch as the middle does not always denote an action done to oneself (like I strike myself), but also an action done for oneself, as mapaσkeva Coμal deinvov, I prepare a meal for myself; and it is in this latter sense that some intransitive verbs may have a middle voice—e.g., verbs in -euw, as Bouλevw, I am a counsellor; Bovλevoμai, I am a counsellor for myself, I deliberate. τυπτομαι, In relation to numbers 2 and 3, as given above, it may be noticed that the English I loose myself and I am loosed are very nearly related in meaning. If I loose myself, clearly I am loosed. The chief difference between the two is, that in the former the action is restricted to one person, namely, the subject; while, in the latter, it extends to a second person-the person, that is, by whom the subject is wrought upon. The difference, in consequence, is rather in the person than the act. Accordingly, the form remains the same, being in both cases λυομαι. In other words, Avouai may have a reflex (or middle) import, as I loose myself, or a passive import, as I am loosed. Strictly speaking, there is but one form in the present tense. Grammarians differ as to the name which they give to that The exact manner of their formation will be explained by and by. At present observe that an action may be considered as now proceeding, hence the present tense; as proceeding in past time, hence the imperfect tense; as proceeding in time to come, hence the future tense; as actually done in past time, hence the aorist tense; as having proceeded in past time, hence the perfect tense; and as having proceeded previously to some other past act, hence the pluperfect tense. Accordingly the present tense properly signifies, as in Avw, I am loosening; and the passive, Avouai, I am being loosened. Mark, also, that the imperfect denotes both an act going on in the past, and a continual and repeated act. The aorist, as the word signifies, denotes an action as simply past, without any exact limitation; and so is called the indefinite (such is the meaning of the term) tense, or the tense of historical narrative. The perfect denotes a past act which, in itself or in its consequences, comes down to and past, when another past act was proceeding, or was com or near the present time. The pluperfect denotes an act done pleted. There are some double form of tenses, as :— A third future, or perfect passive future, is also found, as:Third future passive, Teтvyouai, I shall have been struck. Only few verbs have both the first and second forms: most verbs form their tenses according to either the first or the second forms. Pure verbs, or verbs having a vowel before the final w, have only the first forms, and the student must not fall into the error of supposing that all these forms of TTT are in actual use; they are simply the forms the tenses would assume according to the ordinary rules. The second perfect is sometimes erroneously called a perfect middle. MOODS. Mood is a grammatical term employed to point out the manner of an action. If I describe an act as simply taking place, I use- (1.) The Indicative, as Avw, I loose, so called because it merely indicates or declares the act; this is the mood of independence and reality. If I describe an act as dependent on some other act, as dependent on a conjunction or a verb, I employ (2.) The Subjunctive, as Avw, I may loosen, This is the mood of dependence, or of conception; so called because it implies dependence on another act expressed or understood; that is, an act really performed or conceived of in the mind. (3.) The optative mood, Avou, has two leading uses :-(a) It expresses a simple wish, as Avou, may I loose (hence its name, derived from opto, I wish). (b) In dependent sentences, it acts as a subjunctive to an historic tense in the principal sentence. In other words, when the act expressed in the principal sentence is in an historic tense, the place of the subjunctive in the dependent sentence is supplied by the optative, as : Principal. τούτο ποιω iva Historic. But, τουτο εποιουν ἵνα Subjunctive. λύω, I do this that I may loose. The stem is variable. Thus we have the stem or root of the verb; the stem of the verb may in most verbs be found by cutting off w, the personal-ending; thus, Auw, λv-. Besides the stem of the verb, there is the tense-stem, thus, Eλvoa: the first aorist, by dropping the personal-ending a, gives Eλvo, the tense-stem of the first aorist active; of this form, Avo, the e is the augment or prefix, the force of which is to denote past time. Of the form eλvoa, the σa is the inflection or suffix of the first Avoy, I did this that I might loose. aorist; and of the oa, the a is the ending of the first person If I express an act in the way of command, I use singular. (4.) The Imperative, as Ave, loose thou. These four moods are called finite, that is, definite or limited, because they all express the act under certain limitations or modifications. But if I express an act indefinitely, or in its abstract form, disconnected, that is, with person or number, I then employ the mood termed (5.) The Infinitive, as Ave, to loose. Another modification of the verb is found in (6.) The Verbal Adjective, Aureos, one who must be loosed, which resembles the Latin participle passive in -dus, as amandus, he must be loved; and accordingly, has a passive force. KEY TO EXERCISES IN LESSONS IN GREEK.-XXII. 1. Anacharsis used to say that it was better to have one friend of value than many friends of no value. 2. Hanno, the elder, brought over from Libya a large force into Sicily, 50,000 infantry, 6,000 cavalry, and 60 elephants. 3. They relate that the Chinese live as long as 300 years, and there is a story that the Chaldeans live beyond 100 years. 4. Arganthonius, the king of the Tartessians, is said to have lived more than 150 years. 5. Plato died in the first year of the 108th Olympiad, in the 81st year of his life. 6. A certain Demetrius used to say to Nero, EXTRACTS FROM THE NEW TESTAMENT. 1. But Jesus said, "Make the men sit down.” And there was much grass in the place. So the men sat down, in number about five thousand. 2. Many of those who heard the word believed, and the number of the men became about five thousand. 3. And I saw and heard the voice of many angels round the throne, and the beasts and the elders, and the number of them was ten thousand times ten thousand and thousands of thousands, saying with a loud voice, Worthy is the Lamb that was slain to receive power, and wealth, and wisdom, and strength, and honour, and glory, and blessing. 4. Let him that hath understanding count the number of the beast, for it is the number of a man, and his number is six hundred threescore and six. 5. But John endeavoured to prevent him, saying, I have need to be baptized of thee, and dost thou come to me? 6. Bear one another's burdens, and thus fulfil the law of Christ. 7. For this is our boasting, the witness of our conscience, that in simplicity and sincerity of heart, not in fleshly wisdom, but in the grace of God, we have dealt with the world, but more abundantly with you. 8. If there be any consolation in Christ, if any comfort of love, if any fellowship of the Spirit, if any bowels and mercies, fulfil ye my joy, that ye be likeminded, have the same love, being of one accord, of one mind. Let nothing be done through strife or vainglory, but in honesty of mind let each esteem others better than himself. Let not every man look on his own, but also on the things of others. LESSONS IN BOTANY.-XXXVI. SECTION CX.-PAPAYACEÆ, OR PAPAYADS. dentated; petals hypogynous, five-joined into a funnel-shaped Characteristics: Flowers dioecious; calyx very small, fivebody in the staminiferous flowers, remaining free in those bearing pistils merely; stamens ten; ovary uni-locular or five-celled; placenta parietal; berry pulpy; seed albuminous; trees of tropical America with a milky juice. The papaw-tree, or Carica papaya (Fig. 269), is a tree with cylindrical trunk, simple, and bearing at its summit a terminal tuft of palmi-lobed leaves. This tree has been known to grow |