viz., the plain of the Orinoco in the north, the plain of the Amazon in the middle, and the plain of the Rio de la Plata in the south. The llanos, or savannahs, occupy nearly the whole plain of the Orinoco. These are level grassy tracts without trees, similar to the prairies, or vast meadows, of North America, and are annually inundated by the rivers, like the regions of the Nile. The selvas, or forest-plains, extend over the great basin of the Amazon, and, as their name denotes, cover the ground with trees, shrubs, and plants; to which may be added vast tracts similar to those in the basin of the Orinoco, and salt and sandy deserts in the interior. The pampas, or immense level plains covered with grass, oats, clover, and other herbage, occupy the plains of the Rio de la Plata, and the regions to the south of it, and in their present wild state form small encouragement for the habitation of man; hence the generally desolate state of the whole of the Patagonian region. The river Orinoco is about 1,200 miles long; it rises in the mountains of Guiana, and falls into the Atlantic on the north of British Guiana. The Amazon, which in the upper part of its course is called the Maranon, rises amidst the elevated parts of the Peruvian Andes, flows first northerly, and then easterly, and, after a course of 3,900 miles, falls into the Atlantic at the equator. The basin of the Amazon includes upwards of 1,500,000 square miles, and is supplied with its waters by a number of large tributaries. The Amazon is navigable for large vessels from its embouchure to its junction by the Ucayali, or 2,500 miles from the sea, and for small vessels to the foot of the mountains. Its volume of water is so great, that its freshness is perceptible 500 miles out at sea. To give an idea of the level nature of the basin of this mighty river, we may state that for the space of 600 miles before it discharges its flood into the deep, it has only a fall of 10.5 feet, or about one-fifth of an inch per mile, yet it is reckoned to flow into the ocean with about the same velocity as the Ganges. For the whole of this distance the tides of the Atlantic oppose its majestic flow; but above this point, the declivity being about 6 inches per mile, the velocity of its waters surpasses that of our swiftest steamers; and at this point the opposition of its waters to the flow of the tide becoming tremendous, their united action produces waves which sometimes rise to the height of several feet, rolling back upon the rapid stream like the noise of a cataract, and overwhelming all the lowlands above its estuary. This phenomenon, justly called the bore, or by the native Indians pororoca, will for ever impede the useful navigation of this great river. The main stream of the Amazon receives the waters of many great rivers on the north and south banks. The chief of its affluents on the north are the Putumayo, Caqueta, and Negro; on the south, the Madeira, Tapajos, and Xingu. The Rio de la Plata is a broad estuary formed by the junction of the rivers Parana and Uruguay. The length of the Parana is about 2,350 miles from its source to the embouchure of the Rio de la Plata; and that of the Paraguay, a branch of the same, which joins it at the distance of 760 miles from the sea, is about 1,260 miles. The Uruguay branch is 800 miles in length. The Parana and the Uruguay are navigable for vessels of considerable burden for nearly 1,000 miles. Other rivers of some importance in South America are the Magdalena, 860 miles long, which flows into the Caribbean Sea; and the Atrato, 300 miles long, which flows into the Gulf of Darien. The rivers Essequibo, Demerara, Berbice, Surinam, and others which flow into the Atlantic eastward of the Orinoco, will be remembered chiefly from the important settlements to which they have given their name. The San Francisco, in Brazil, is 1,500 miles long. The Colorado, 600 miles long, and the Rio Negro, 800 miles long, both flow into the Atlantic south of the La Plata. The rivers on the west coast of South America have all short courses, owing to the vicinity of the Andes to the shore. Lakes. The lakes of South America are few. The Lake of Titicaca, on the table-land of the same name, and at an elevation of 12,847 feet above the level of the sea, contains about 3,800 square miles; near its shores the depth is 720 feet; its waters are fresh. The Lake of Maracaybo, near the shores of the Caribbean Sea, is connected by a narrow strait with the Gulf of Maracaybo, and its waters are brackish; it contains about 5,000 square miles. The Lake dos Patos, or "lake of tho " of the same area, on the south-east coast of Brazil, its waters into the sea by a channel called the Rio al. 1 SUMMARY OF BOUNDARIES. NORTH: The Caribbean Sea, etc. WEST: The Pacific Ocean. Galapagos, W. of Ecuador. Chonos Archipelago, S. of Chiloe. Hanover, W. of Patagonia. Falklands, E. of Patagonia. Fernando Noronha, N.E. of Cape Caviana, M. of the Amazon. SUMMARY OF PENINSULAS. Patagonia, S. of La Plata. LESSONS IN FRENCH.-LVI. § 32.-THE PERSONAL PRONOUNS. (1.) The personal pronouns are so called because they seem to designate the three persons more especially than the other pronouns. These pronouns are: §33.-REMARKS ON THE PERSONAL PRONOUNS. (1.) The French, as well as the English, use the second person plural for the second person singular, in addressing one person. (2.) The second person, however, is used, as in English, in addressing the Supreme Being : Grand Dien! tes jugements sont remplis d'équité. Great God! thy judgments are full of equity. Ils se flattent, they flatter themselves. they flatter one another, each other. (14.) Sor, himseif, itself, etc., is of both genders and numbers, and is applied to persons and things. It is used in general and (3.) It is also used in poetry, or to give more energy to the indeterminate sentences; having commonly an indefinite prodiction: noun for the nominative: On a souvent besoin d'un plus We have often need of one mora petit que soi. humble than ourselves. For additional rules on personal pronouns, see Syntax, §98, and following. LESSONS IN SHORTHAND.-XV. CONCLUSION. Observe that the personal pronouns of the third person 201. Having at length conducted the student through a complete are not used for the indirect regimen to represent inanimate course of Phonography, under the personal guidance of the founder of objects. The relative pronouns EN, of or from it [§ 39 (17)], Y, the system we propose to close our Lessons with a brief sketch of photo it [§ 39 (18)], are used instead of the personal pronouns.nographic lite ature, from the pen of one who, as being wholly unconThus, in speaking of a house, we do not say, Je lui ajouterai une aile, I will add a wing to it. We must say : I will add a wing to it (thereto). J'y ajouterai une aile, Qu'en pensez-vous ? What do you think of it (thereof)? (6.) The word même, plural mêmes, may be used after the pronoun in the sense of self, selves : Le roi lui-même, La reine elle-même, Les princes eux-mêmes, the king himself. the queen herself. the princes themselves. nected with Mr. Pitman, can speak freely, and, as being a professional shorthand writer of many years' standing, can also speak with authority. Our object in giving this sketch is twofold. In the first place, we desire to point out to the learuer the abundant means he has at hand of pursuing, with the least possible expenditure of time and labour, the study of the art in which he should now be well grounded. In the second place, we desire to give some indication of the widely extended uses to which Phonography may be put as a medium for the intercommunication of thought, and of the signal triumphs it has already won for itself in that direction. 202. At the outset it is worthy of observation that Phonography is the only system of shorthand which has ever yet achieved a literature. Every other system begins and ends with the one lesson book which explains it to the world. It is true that the Bible was printed in Rich's system, from engraved plates, in 1689, and an abridged Prayer Book was lithographed by Lewis the stenographer; but these two books, though the very best, do not make a library. The reason that no other system than Phonography has given to the world a shorthand literature, is that in no other system of shorthand is there the same definiteness and simplicity of principle, the same certainty as to the meaning of the written character, the same general legibility utterly independent of the context. The Bible in Phonography is, to the practised student, as easy to read as the Bible in ordinary type. Nay more, so certain is the system in its results that the most intricate, the most technical, the most delicate correspondence may be carried on between two phonographers with all the clearness of the most legible longhand. Time makes no difference to its readableness: that which was written ten years ago is as easy to decipher as that which was written to-day. Nor is the memory called in to assist the eyes in this matter. The writer once, when taking down a speech by deep personal interest, and awoke to consciousness to find, as he one of our leading orators, fell into a profound reverie on a matter of supposed, that he had missed full ten minutes of an address which it was his duty to write out then and there for to-morrow morning's daily paper. Turning to his note-book in a kind of despair, his delight scarcely knew bounds when he found that the practised hand had registered every sound as it fell on the equally practised ear, and that every word that had been uttered was as legible to him as if it had been printed in bold Roman letters. With no other system of shorthand would this have been possible, because in no other system is the character so certain, the context so entirely a matter of indifference. And it is in virtue of this clearness, this certainty, this never-failing legibility, that Phonography has been able to make to itself a literature. One phonographer can read another phonographer's writing, provided such writing be not slovenly and imperfect, as easily as he can read his own, and he can read lithographed Pho Your father and I were a long été longtemps ennemis l'un de time enemies. (11.) The recapitulating pronoun and the verb sometimes nography as easily as he can read print. SUMMARY OF BOUNDARIES. NORTH: The Caribbean Sea, etc. EAST: The Atlantic Ocean. Lobos, W. of Peru. Juan Fernandez, W. of Chili. Chonos Archipelago, S. of Chiloe. Hanover, W. of Patagonia. Falklands, E. of Patagonia. viz., the plain of the Orinoco in the north, the plain of the Fernando Noronha, N.E. of Cape SUMMARY OF PENINSULAS. Patagonia, S. of La Plata. LESSONS IN FRENCH.-LVI. § 32.-THE PERSONAL PRONOUNS. (1.) The personal pronouns are so called because they seem to designate the three persons more especially than the other pronouns. These pronouns are: NOMINATIVE FORM. Singular. Tu, thou. Plural. Te, Se, (himself. herself. Se, themselves. 3. Soi, itself. OR ACCUSATIVE. 3. The Rio de la Plata is a broad estuary formed by the junction of the rivers Parana and Uruguay. The length of the Parana is about 2,350 miles from its source to the embouchure of the Rio de la Plata; and that of the Paraguay, a branch of the same, which joins it at the distance of 760 miles from the sea, is about 1,260 miles. The Uruguay branch is 800 miles in length. The Parana and the Jruguay are navigable for vessels of consider-2. able burden for nearly 1,000 miles. Other rivers of some importance in South America aro the Magdalena, 860 miles long, which flows into the Caribbean Sea; and the Atrato, 300 miles long, which flows into the Gulf of Darien. The rivers Essequibo, Demerara, Berbice, Surinam, and others which flow into the Atlantic eastward of the Orinoco, will be remembered chiefly from the important settlements to which they have given their name. The San Francisco, in Brazil, is 1,500 miles long. The Colorado, 600 miles long, and the Rio Negro, 800 miles long, both flow into the Atlantic south of the La Plata. The rivers on the west coast of South America have all short courses, owing to the vicinity of the Andes to the shore. Lakes. The lakes of South America are few. The Lake of Titicaca, on the table-land of the same name, and at an elevation of 12,847 feet above the level of the sea, contains about 3,800 square miles; near its shores the depth is 720 feet; its waters are fresh. The Lake of Maracaybo, near the shores of the Caribbean Sea, is connected by a narrow strait with the Gulf of Maracaybo, and its waters are brackish; it contains about 5,000 square miles. The Lake dos Patos, or "lake of the ducks," of the same area, on the south-east coast of Brazil, discharges its waters into the sea by a channel called the Rio Grande do Sul. Les, them { S m. (3.) INDIRECT REGIMEN, OR DATIVE. they flatter one another, each other. (14.) Sor, himself, itself, etc., is of both genders and numbers, and is applied to persons and things. It is used in general and noun for the nominative : (3.) It is also used in poetry, or to give more energy to the indeterminate sentences; having commonly an indefinite prodiction: Observe that the personal pronouns of the third person are not used for the indirect regimen to represent inanimate objects. The relative pronouns EN, of or from it [§ 39 (17)], Y, to it [§ 39 (18)], are used instead of the personal pronouns. Thus, in speaking of a house, we do not say, Je lui ajouterai une aile, I will add a wing to it. We must say : I will add a wing to it (thereto). On a souvent besoin d'un plus We have often need of one mora petit que soi, humble than ourselves, For additional rules on personal pronouns, sce Syntax, § 98, and following. LESSONS IN SHORTHAND.-XV. CONCLUSION. 201. Having at length conducted the student through a complete course of Phonography, under the personal guidance of the founder of the system we propose to close our Lessons with a brief sketch of phonographic lite ature, from the pen of one who, as being wholly unconnected with Mr. Pitman, can speak freely, and, as being a professional shorthand writer of many years' standing, can also speak with authority. Our object in giving this sketch is twofold. In the first place, we desire to point out to the learner the abundant means he has at hand of pursuing, with the least possible expenditure of time and labour, the study of the art in which he should now be well grounded. In the second place, we desire to give some indication of the widely extended uses to which Phonography may be put as a meWhat do you think of it (thereof)?dium for the intercommunication of thought, and of the signal (6.) The word même, plural mêmes, may be used after the triumphs it has already won for itself in that direction. pronoun in the sense of self, selves : J'y ajouterai une aile, What do you think of him? Qu'en pensez-vous ? 202. At the outset it is worthy of observation that Phonography is the only system of shorthand which has ever yet achieved a literature. Every other system begins and ends with the one lesson book which explains it to the world. It is true that the Bible was printed ia Rich's system, from engraved plates, in 1689, and an abridged Prayer Book was lithographed by Lewis the stenographer; but these two books, though the very best, do not make a library. The reason that no other system than Phonography has given to the world a shorthand literature, is that in no other system of shorthand is there the same definiteness and simplicity of principle, the same certainty as to the meaning of the written character, the same general legibility utterly independent of the context. The Bible in Phonography is, to the practised student, as easy to read as the Bible in ordinary type. Nay more, so certain is the system in its results that the most intri (8.) The same pronouns, moi, toi, lui, eux, are used instead of the nominative pronouns, je, tu, il, ils, for the English pronouns, I, thou, he, they, when those pronouns are employed without acate, the most technical, the most delicate correspondence may be verb in an answer, when they are used by themselves, or have a verb understood after them : Qui est arrivé ce matin ? Moi. Who arrived this morning? I. (9.) The same pronouns are used in exclamations, and in those cases where the English pronouns, I, thou, etc., are followed by the relative pronoun who; also after c'est, c'était, etc. Moi, lui céder! I, yield to him! (10.) These same pronouns are also used instead of the nominatives, je, tu, etc., when the verb has several subjects, which are all pronouns, or partly nouns and partly pronouns. The verb may then be immediately preceded by a pronoun in the plural, representing in one word all the preceding subjects: carried on between two phonographers with all the clearness of the Votre père et moi, nous avons Your father and I were a long come first in the sentence: Nous avons, vous et moi, besoin You and I have need of tolerance. de tolérance. (12.) The reflective pronoun SE, himself, etc., is used for both genders, and for both numbers; for persons and for things; and always accompanies a verb : 203. We now proceed to our sketch. Phonographic literature may be conveniently divided into four branches: 1. Educational, 2. Periodical, 3 Bibliothecal, 4. Recommendatory and Eulogistic. 204. In the Educational division we have first of all three works which lead the student up to the point at which we leave him-the "Phonographic Teacher," the " Phonographic Reader," and the "Manual of Phonography." These three books, which may also be |
