forenoon being taken up with them. The course in the first group of studies, astronomy and navigation, begins with a short review of descriptive geometry and of spherical trigonometry. Astronomy is taught chiefly as subsidiary to navigation, but it receives a pretty full treatment, always from a mathematical point of view. The course in navigation is both theoretical and practical, and includes all that could well be taught in a stationary ship. There is a small observatory on shore, which is in the charge of this department. The hour before breakfast, on two days in the week, is devoted to observations and the solution of practical problems. The time is chiefly devoted, however, to a thorough foundation in the theory of navigation and to working out examples; the year on board the practice ship, after graduation, giving ample time to develop and perfect the exclusively practical part of the subject.

In the second group, analysis and mechanics, the course begins with a short review of certain subjects in algebra, such as fractional and negative exponents, the binomial formula of Newton, series, &c. Next comes a thorough course in analytical geometry, including higher plane curves. This is followed by the differential and integral calculus, including the method of least squares. After this, the class takes up mechanics, going through statics. This completes the course for the first year. The second year begins with the subject of differential equations, after which comes the rest of mechanics, embracing kinematics and dynamics. The second year's work includes an elaborate course in theoretical mechanics, and in mechanics applied to machinery.

Physics and chemistry are so divided that a part of both subjects is taught in each year. At present the Naval School does not possess the necessary means for instruction in either subject, such as apparatus, laboratories, &c., and the course in both is somewhat meager and inadequate. It is hoped that before long a laboratory will be provided. Of course it will have to be on shore, and its distance from the school will interfere seriously with its usefulness. At present some use is made of the laboratory connected with the pharmaceutical department at Brest; but this answers very ill for instruction in chemistry, and is of no use at all in physics. The lectures in the former branch are given up to general chemistry, with little view to its application to the naval profession; while many of the theories taught are obsolete, the dualistic formulas are retained, and the lectures in general do not represent the present condition of the science.

In the professional branches, the only regular cours delivered are in steam-engineering, ordnance and gunnery, and naval architecture. In the other subjects, and even in the first two of these, reliance is largely placed on practical exercises, supplemented by oral explanations. The lithographed cours form a series of elaborate works on the various subjects, and, with the manuals, afford all the necessary materials for imparting a thorough knowledge of the theory of all the branches. In seamanship, the cours contains a description of the parts of a ship,

treated in a regular and systematic way, with the most general and elementary matters at the beginning; thus avoiding the faults of construction and arrangement which characterize most of the text-books on the subject. The cours for the second year is a complete sailmaker's and rigger's guide, and contains a general explanation and description of maneuvers. The problems of mathematics and mechanics involved in the subject, such as arise in lifting and getting on board heavy weights, in the action of sails and rudder on the motions of a ship, &c., are worked out in detail. As between theory and practice, however, by far the greater part of the time in this branch is given to the latter.

The course in ordnance includes the subjects of metals, the fabrication, testing, and inspection of guns; a full description of the three principal types or models in use in the French Navy, those of 1858-'60, of 1864-'66, and of 1870; carriages; powder; projectiles, and their manufacture; the complete discussion of the theory of motion of projectiles in air; the calculation of range tables, and the effect of projectiles on armor. Under the head of ordnance and gunnery (artillerie) come also instruction in stationary and movable torpedoes; the cours d'infanterie, which is a treatise on small-arms, principally the Gras rifle, together with the theory of firing (étude théorique du tir), mathematically treated; and a short explanation of topographical charts. The course is filled out by the manuals of the seaman-gunner, and of small-arms, and torpedoes.

The remaining professional subjects, steam-engineering and naval architecture, are treated with great fullness and thoroughness. With the exception of astronomical navigation, calculus, and mechanics, they are the most elaborate and skillfully-managed courses at the school. The instructors are a principal mechanician for the first branch, and two lieutenants of high scientific attainments for the second. Naval architecture includes ship-building, as well as the higher problems of naval architecture properly so called. The published lectures in both courses are well-digested and exhaustive works from a scientific and mathematical, as well as a professional point of view. (See Appendix, Note J.) The practical exercises in the course are as follows:

1. Seamanship.

2. Great guns.

3. Howitzers, in boats and on shore.

4. Infantry.

5. Landing parties (Exercices de débarquement).

6. Boats, with sails and with oars.

7. Steam-engine.

8. Fencing.

9. Swimming (school in town).

10. Dancing (first class only).

The last three are considered as recreations. The seamanship exercises include long drills on Thursday and Sunday, in good weather. In

struction is given in signals. At certain times the corvette is under steam, and the students are then given practical instruction in the working of the engines, two being stationed at a time in the engine-room, and two at the fires. Seamanship instruction of a practical character, which does not involve getting a ship under way, is given on those afternoons when the regular exercise is put off by bad weather.

The system of instruction on board the Borda is one which has many advantages in the hands of able instructors, while with an inefficient staff it would inevitably go to pieces. In it, the instructor and the instructor's teaching are everything; the text-book nothing. As far as he has occasion to use them, the instructor makes his own text-books. The system is one that affords at the same time an excellent check and a powerful stimulus to the teacher. It is practically his class-room work that is published in the lithographed sheets, and the whole details of his teaching are therefore laid open to inspection. If he is incompetent he cannot conceal it, and if he devises new and original methods, if his studies are carried into the most recent and most advanced stages of scientific and professional progress, he gets full credit for it. The outside examiners are placed in a position to inspect not only results, but methods, and, if either are defective, to ascertain the most effectual remedy.

5.-DISCIPLINE-MODE OF LIFE-ROUTINE.

The discipline of the Borda is severe, even for a ship in commission. The supervision is so close and constant that there is very little opportunity of committing grave offenses without immediate discovery; and the list of punishments is calculated to preclude their repetition. The list is as follows:—

1. Reprimand (1) pronounced by an officer or professor; (2) by the second in command or executive officer.

2. Punishment squad, one hour a day, for three days at most.

3. Coventry (la police), not more than ten days.

4. Prison, not more than ten days.

5. Dark cell (cachot), not more than five days.

6. Suspension.

7. Expulsion.

Each offense, or rather each punishment, as representing an offense, has an influence on the conduct-mark. This mark is on a scale of 20. Demerits (points de punition) are given as a record of conduct, and the maximum number allowed in a term is 200. An absence of demerits gives a conduct-mark of 20, while the maximum gives a mark of zero. A student that receives the latter as his term-mark in conduct, is reported to the minister for dismissal. The number of demerits attached to each offense is fixed by a scale, according to the character of the punishment. Thus, every reprimand gives from one to two demerits; the squad gives two demerits, and one in addition for each day of

punishment; coventry gives five demerits, and one for each day, and so upwards. Delinquents whose offenses cannot be suitably punished by the captain are sent to the guard-ship, where the Préfet disposes of them, either by a severer punishment, or by a report to the Minister of Marine, recommending their dismissal.

The character of the punishments is somewhat peculiar. Delinquents placed in the punishment squad are posted in line with a short interval between each man, and required to keep the position of the soldier without arms for one hour. If the number is large, they may be drilled for an hour. Coventry consists in isolating an offender from his companions and from everyone else during the hours of study, recreation, and meals. He attends lectures and practical exercises. He has his meals from the mess-table of the crew; and his allowance of wine is weakened with water. Delinquents undergoing imprisonment are allowed to attend the lectures and interrogations in scientific subjects only, but they are deprived of these also, if it is found expedient, as sometimes happens, to confine them on board one of the corvettes instead of the Borda, for the sake of greater isolation. When the fifth punishment is ordered, that of confinement in the cachot, the delinquent is taken out of his dark cell for one hour only in the twenty-four. This hour is employed in solitary exercise aloft (exercice de gymnastique dans le gréement). In both the prison and the cachot, delinquents are allowed a blanket and their canvas blouse and trousers, but they sleep on the floor. Their meals are served from the crew's mess; but in the cachot they are reduced on the first, third, and fifth days of confinement to soup, bread, and water. Naturally, with such punishments, there is little difficulty in maintaining discipline on board the Borda.

Deprivation of liberty to go ashore does not exist as a separate punishment for offenses; but the privilege is taken away in consequence of very low marks, or of any of the five school punishments, incurred during the previous fortnight. A whole class may be occasionally deprived of liberty for a general infraction of the regulations.

Lieutenants and professors can only pronounce reprimands; all the other punishments, except the dark cell and removal from the school, may be inflicted by the commander, but the duration of the punishment is always fixed by the captain. Sectional inspections are conducted daily by the chiefs of sections, and a general inspection is held on Thursday by the commander and on Sunday by the captain; but informal inspections of all parts of the ship occupied by students, including also their chests, lockers, &c., are made at any time by the adjudants. Offenses are reported by any officer, from the commander down to the adjudants and instructing petty officers, under whose notice they come.

The students are not allowed to have any articles in their possession other than those authorized in the prescribed outfit, and they can keep nothing under lock and key. Any books, watches, rings, or other un

authorized articles that they bring with them when they first join the school are taken away, and only restored at their departure. They are forbidden to obtain or receive anything from outside, even from their friends, but they may procure tobacco and such other small matters as they need at a little shop (cantine) on board. Novels and newspapers are especially prohibited, and the penalty for having a novel in possession is confinement in prison.

Formerly, there was a relation of authority and responsibility between the older and younger students, but this exists no longer. No monitorial authority of any kind is exercised, and positions of command in drills are purely temporary and cease when the drill is over. Orders are received from the chiefs of sections (lieutenants), and complaints in each section are made to them at inspection. If the complaint does not meet with attention, the matter can be laid before the commander or captain at Thursday or Sunday inspection.

The two classes go ashore on alternate Sundays once a month, the second class on the first Sunday in the month and the first class on the second. On these days the class not on liberty has practice for six hours in working ship on board the corvette, and on the other Sundays in the month the two classes are exercised either together or separately, using both the small vessels. Dinner takes place on board the corvette to save time. The students on liberty go ashore in charge of a lieutenant, who remains on duty during the liberty hours at an office provided for him at the Etablissement des Pupilles. He has, during this time, a general oversight of the students on shore, and he brings them off to the ship. The hours of liberty are from 11 a.m. till sunset, or till 7 p. m., when sunset is later.

No students are allowed to go on shore, even on liberty days, unless the privilege is asked for them by their correspondant. This person is a resident of Brest, selected by the parent or guardian of the student to act as his agent at Brest and to look, in a general way, after his interests. No officer of the school or contractor furnishing supplies to the school can be a correspondent. Correspondents cannot visit students in their charge on board the ship; indeed, this privilege is not accorded to any one; but a half hour, after the infantry drill on Thursday, is devoted to interviews, which take place on the drill-ground or in the building adjoining. In exceptional cases students may go ashore to visit their parents when the latter are temporarily at Brest, but this privilege is only granted on Sunday, and never, except in grave and peculiar circumstances, to pupils who reside in the neighborhood.

Each student receives on his arrival a number, which he retains throughout the course and by which he is known. It is placed on all his clothes, his desk, his books, and his hammock.

According to the table of studies already given, it has been seen that 623 hours a week are given to special exercises and 10 to general study.