upon estimates offered by the Conseil de Perfectionnement, for the purchase of books and scientific journals for the library, and for lithographing and stationery. The expenditure of this sum is in the hands of the director, and is regularly accounted for by him. A full collection of models, plans, documents, and drawings is supplied by the department of naval construction; and beyond the small appropriation referred to, the school, as such, is not a source of expense to the government.

The course of instruction covers two years. The session begins in the month of November, immediately after the close of the final examinations; the exact date being fixed each year by the director. The course comprises theoretical instruction in lectures, for seven or eight months, and studies in the dockyard at Cherbourg (first year), and in the national engine-works at Indret (second year). The courses are finished on the 30th of June. The following subjects are included in the courses: Naval construction.

Strength of materials.

Naval architecture.

Steam-engine.

Thermodynamics.

Technology.

Naval ordnance.

Regulation of the compass.

Accounts.

English.

Mechanical drawing.

Freehand drawing.

Ship and engine drawing.

As the profession of naval construction is a favorite branch among the higher graduates of the Polytechnic-coming usually after mines, and roads and bridges-the pupils are selected men, and distinguished in a high degree by earnestness, intelligence, and thorough scientific attainments, as far as they have gone. They enter the school of application at the age of twenty or twenty-one, an age which is most favorable for professional study. Besides the incalculable advantage of a sound preliminary training, they begin their professional course with a feeling of elation and encouragement derived from having already successfully tested their powers. Their number is large enough to keep up a generous emulation, while at the same time their instructors are able to give the closest attention to the wants of individuals; and hence they get all the benefits, with none of the disadvantages, of private tuition. While the system of instruction, by lectures and interrogations, is similar to that in other French institutions, the interrogations are much more frequent and personal, and each professor is his own répétiteur. The professional courses are marked by great originality of treatment, and text-books serve only a subsidiary purpose. At frequent intervals examinations (interrogations générales) are held, which have a

certain weight in the final classification, though their object is as much that of giving a summary review as of testing knowledge. The hours of instruction are from half-past eight to half-past ten in the morning, and from twelve to five in the afternoon; and attendance is always required.

Practical instruction, or rather illustrative instruction, is given during the session, in visits to the arsenal and workshops, and to vessels making short trial trips. The real practice, however, is given during the summer. On the 1st of July the students are sent either to one of the naval ports or to Indret. Here they are attached to the different branches of work in the department of naval construction, and go through a regular course in the yard or the machine-shop. At Indret their attention is directed exclusively to the fabrication of engines, and all that is acces sory to this branch of the profession. The authorities are directed tɔ afford the students every facility, and to see that they pursue their work with assiduity. The director of the school makes tours of inspection during the summer to assure himself that the students are properly occupied; and the engineer professors are charged in turn with the direct supervision of their pupils, at the station to which they have been sent. This has the additional effect of giving the instructors an opportunity of refreshing and broadening their professional knowledge, and of keeping them familiar with the latest developments of professional science; and it enables them to obtain easily the draughts and other documents necessary for supplementing and revising their lectures.

Before he leaves the school in July each student receives from the director detailed instructions to serve him as a guide during his summer work. Copies of these instructions are also sent to the chief of service at the station where the student is to work. He is required to keep a journal containing full descriptions of the work performed, and of kindred matters coming under his observation, accompanied by draughts and sketches. These are examined by the construction officer under whose orders the student is placed, and finally handed in to the director of the school. On his return the whole of the student's work is examined and marked.

Second-year students return to Cherbourg on the 20th of September; and first-year students on the 10th of October, the intervening twenty days being passed by the latter in vacation. The time from the reopening of the school is passed in preparation for the final examinations, which begin on November 3. During this period the upper class has also a special course in ship and engine design.

Marks are given by the board of examiners at the annual examinations. The final mark of the student in each branch is determined by combining the mark of the board with that obtained in the school work during the course; the former having double weight. Each branch has its coefficient, which is combined in the usual way with the mark given in the subject; and the sum of the products, together with a mark for

diligence and conduct, gives the final average of the student. The mark for conduct has a low relative weight. The following table explains the system of marking and gives the coefficients in each branch:

The order of seniority of the graduating class is fixed by the final classification, according to the system described; and in this order the engineer students are promoted to the grade of assistant engineer of the third class, as vacancies occur. The student who graduates from the school at the head of his class is sent, as a reward, to England, on a tour of scientific study and inspection. On his return he presents a report of his observations to the director of the school.

It will be observed that no provision is made in the course of constructing engineers for a cruise on board a ship of war. By the old regulations of 1855 constructing engineers were obliged to perform a certain amount of sea-service in the lowest grade before promotion; and they were also sent to sea in flag-ships in the higher grades. This regulation was abolished in 1876, as it was found that it removed engineers for too long a time from the duties of their profession on shore, without any proportionate advantage. The Minister of Marine still retains the power to send engineers to sea at his discretion; but, as in England, it is only done to a very limited extent and for short periods.

At Cherbourg, as at Greenwich, provision is made for the reception of construction students from civil life, either Frenchmen or foreigners, under the name of free pupils (élèves libres). The free pupils are required to obtain permission to attend from the Ministry of Marine and pass an examination for admission; and they receive instruction in the following courses:

Ship-building.

Strength of materials.

Naval architecture.

Marine engines.

Thermodynamics.
Technology.

Naval ordnance.

Regulation of the compass.

Every facility is given to the free pupils, except that the plans and documents in the school archives are not open to their inspection, without special authorization. They receive a diploma at graduation, stating the character and duration of their course of study, and the degree of capacity they have shown.

Officers on duty at Cherbourg are also allowed to attend the lectures at the school, upon receiving permission from the Préfet.

THE TORPEDO SCHOOL (Ecole des défenses sous-marines).

The establishment at Boyardville has two objects, the training of officers and men for the torpedo-service, and the performance of experiments for the development and perfection of the materials of this branch of maritime warfare. The two functions are largely performed by the same officers. At the head of the institution, but still under the orders of the Préfet Maritime of the district, is a captain, who has general direction, and who also gives such courses of lectures as he sees fit. Under him is a commander, as senior executive aid, another commander in charge of the courses of superior officers, and a number of lieutenants, whose duties of instruction are divided between the junior officers and the instructing warrant and petty officers. The general principle prevails of making instructors of various degrees at the same time students of higher courses than they teach. Thus the lieutenants give lectures to the instructing warrant and petty officers, while the latter teach the men, under the supervision of the lieutenants, or of ensigns pursuing the officers' course. In general, instructors of all grades are selected from those who have been students, very often immediately after they have received their certificates; and in recognition of their special qualifications, they all receive extra pay while performing this duty.

Apart from the commissioned officers, the instructing force consists of two first masters (warrant officers), one belonging to the corps of gun. ners, the other to that of helmsmen. The latter has charge of the instruction of men in physics and in telegraphy, having an expert as assistant in the latter branch. Besides these, there are several warrant and petty officers, of the corps of gunners, helmsmen, and machinists, according to the number of pupils; but at least half of these must always be of the gunnery branch. The workshop is in charge of a principal mechanician or first master machinist.

The board of instruction (conseil d'instruction) is composed of the captain as president, the two commanders, the lieutenant in charge of the officers' course, and one of the lieutenants in charge of the course for men. It prepares programmes of study, and revises the official manual of torpedoes. The course of study is both theoretical and practical. Marks are given by the captain for the work performed by the officer students. This work consists of notes of lectures, practical experiments, and the preparation of essays or discussions on subjects relating to torpedoes. An officer unconnected with the school, either an admiral or captain, is detailed to conduct the examination at the close S. Ex. 51--10