sanction of divine authority, and had a very close | getic, and highly popular among their countrymen, alliance with the more serious concerns of life, may possibly appear to us mean and contemptible; and with the sacred ceremonies. On these accounts since many things which were held by them in it happens, in the first place, that abundance of the highest veneration, are by us but little remetaphors occur in the Hebrew poetry deduced garded, or, perhaps, but little understood. from sacred subjects; and further, that there is a necessity for the most diligent observation, lest that very connexion with the affairs of religion should escape us. For should we be mistaken in so material a point should we erroneously account as common or profane, what is in its nature divine; or should we rank among the mean and the vulgar, sentiments and images which are sacred and sublime; it is incredible how much the strength of the language, and the force and majesty of the ideas, will be destroyed. Nothing in nature, indeed, can be so conducive to the sublime, as those conceptions which are suggested by the contemplation of the greatest of all Beings; and when the august form of religion presents itself to the mental eye,

A fervent pleasure, and an awe divine,
Seizes the soul, and lifts it to its God.

It follows, therefore, of course, that the dignity of
the Hebrew poetry must, in some measure, be
diminished in our eyes; since not only the con-
nexion of the imagery with sacred things must
frequently escape our observation, but even when
it is most apparent, it can scarcely strike us with
that force and vivacity with which it must have
penetrated the minds of the Hebrews. The whole
system of the Hebrew rites is one great and com-
plicated allegory, to the study and observance of
which all possible diligence and attention were
incessantly dedicated by those who were employed
in the sacred offices. On this occupation and
study, therefore, all good and considerate men
were intent; it constituted all their business, all
their amusement; it was their treasure and their
hope; on this every care and every thought was
employed; and the utmost sanctity and reverence
distinguished every part of their conduct which

had
any relation to it. Much dignity and subli-
mity must also have resulted from the recollection
which these allusions produced, of the splendour
and magnificence of the sacred rites themselves;
the force of which, upon the minds of those who
had frequent opportunities of observing them,
Eust have been incredible. Such a solemn gran-
deur attended these rites, especially after the
building of Solomon's temple, that, although we

are

possessed of very accurate descriptions, our imaginations are still utterly unable to embody them. Many allusions, therefore, of this kind, which the Hebrew poets found particularly ener

2. A reference to two or three topics will of themselves suggest a variety of examples, sufficiently illustrative of the subject.-Much of the Jewish law is employed in discriminating between things clean and unclean; in removing or making atonement for things proscribed or polluted; and under these ceremonies, as under a veil or covering, a meaning the most important and sacred is concealed, as would be apparent from the nature of them, even if we had not, besides, other clear and explicit authority for this opinion. Among the rest are certain diseases and infirmities of the body, and some customs evidently in themselves indifferent: these, on a cursory view, seem light and trivial; but when the reasons of them are properly explored, they are found to be of considerable importance. We are not to wonder, therefore, if the sacred poets sometimes have recourse to these topics for imagery, even on the most momentous occasions, when they display the general depravity inherent in the human mind (Isai. lxiv. 6), or exprobate the corrupt manners of their own people (Lam. i. 8, 9, 17, ii. 2), or when they deplore the abject state of the virgin, the daughter of Zion, polluted and exposed, Isai. i. 5, 6, 16; Ezek. xxxv. 17. If we consider these metaphors without any reference to the religion of their authors, they will doubtless appear in some degree disgusting and inelegant; if we refer them to their genuine source, to the peculiar rites of the Hebrews, they will be found wanting neither in force nor in dignity. Of the same nature, or at least analogous to them, are those ardent expressions of grief and misery which are poured forth by the royal prophet (who, indeed, in many of those divine compositions, personates a character far more exalted than his own); especially when he complains that he is wasted and consumed with the loathsomeness of disease, and bowed down and depressed with a burden of sin, too heavy for human nature to sustain, Ps. xxxviii. On reading these passages, some who were but little acquainted with the genius of the Hebrew poetry, have pretended to inquire into the nature of the disease with which the poet was affected; not less absurdly, than if they had perplexed themselves to discover in what river he was plunged, when he complains that "the deep waters had gone over his soul."

3. But as there are many passages in the Hebrew poets which may seem to require a similar defence, so there are, in all probability, many

I

themselves must be approached, the peculiar flavour of which cannot be conveyed by aqueducts, nor indeed by any exertion of modern art. 4. The poetic images which the Hebrew writers have drawn from the SACRED HISTORY, differ very materially from those we have already noticed.

1. In this class of images there is scarcely any thing that is difficult or obscure; few of the pas

which, although they now appear to abound in beauties and elegancies, would yet be thought much more sublime, were they illustrated from those sacred rites to which they allude, and, as excellent pictures, viewed in their proper light. To this purpose many instances might be produced from one topic, namely, from the precious and magnificent ornaments of the priest's attire. Such was the gracefulness, such the magnificence, of the sacerdotal vestments, especially those of the high-sages in which they occur will seem to require priest; so adapted were they, as Moses says, to the expression of glory and of beauty, that to those who were impressed with an equal opinion of the sanctity of the wearer, nothing could possibly appear more venerable and sublime. To these, therefore, we find frequent allusions in the Hebrew poets, when they have occasion to describe extraordinary beauty or comeliness, or to delineate the perfect form of supreme Majesty. The elegant Isaiah (chap. Ixi. 10) has a most beautiful idea of this kind, when he describes, in his own peculiar manner (that is, most magnificently), the exultation and glory of the church, after its triumphal restoration. Pursuing the allusion, he decorates her with the vestments of salvation, and clothes her in the robe of righteous

ness.

He afterwards compares the church to a bridegroom dressed for the marriage, to which comparison incredible dignity is added by the word ɲɔɩ yekahen, a metaphor plainly taken from the apparel of the priests, the force of which, therefore, no modern language can express. No imagery, indeed, which the Hebrew writers could employ, was equally adapted with this to the display of the infinite majesty of God. JEHOVAH is therefore introduced by the Psalmist as "clothed with glory and with strength" (xciii. 1); he is "girded with power" (Ps. cxxxix. 15); which are the very terms appropriated to the describing of the dress and ornaments of the priests.

explication or defence: all will be at once perspicuous, splendid, and sublime. Sacred History illuminates this class of imagery with its proper light, and renders it scarcely less conspicuous to us than to the Hebrews themselves. There is, indeed, this difference, that to the Hebrews the objects of these allusions were all national and domestic; and the power of them, in moving or delighting the mind, was, of course, proportionably greater; nay, frequently, the very place, the scene of action, certain traces and express tokens of so many miracles lying before their eyes, must have increased the effect. To us, on the other hand, however we may hold these facts in veneration, or however great and striking they may be in themselves, the distance of time and place must of necessity render them less interesting.

2. The manner in which these metaphors are formed is well deserving of observation, and is, in fact, as follows. In describing or embellishing illustrious actions, or future events of a miraculous nature, the Hebrew poets are accustomed to introduce allusions to the actions of former times, such as possess a conspicuous place in their history; and thus they illuminate with colours, foreign indeed, but similar, the future by the past, the recent by the antique, facts less known by others more generally understood. This property seems peculiar to the poetry of the Hebrews; at least, it is but seldom to be met with in that of other nations.

4. But with reference to this class of metaphors, especially, it must not be concealed, that 3. One very fruitful topic, in furnishing to the it is scarcely or not at all possible, for any trans- sacred poets these allusions, is the chaos and the lation fully to represent the genuine sense of the creation, which compose the first pages of the sacred poets, and that delicate connexion which, sacred history. These are constantly alluded to, for the most part, exists between their poetical as expressive of any remarkable change, whether imagery, and the peculiar circumstances of their prosperous or adverse, in the public affairs; of nation. This connexion frequently depends upon the overthrow or restoration of kingdoms and the use of certain terms, upon a certain associa- nations; and are consequently very common in tion between words and things which a translation the prophetic poetry, particularly when any ungenerally perplexes, and very frequently destroys. usual degree of boldness is attempted. If the This, therefore, is not to be preserved in the most subject be the destruction of the Jewish empire literal and accurate version, much less in any by the Chaldeans, or a strong denunciation of poetical translation, or rather imitation, though ruin against the enemies of Israel, it is depicted there are extant some not unsuccessful attempts in exactly the same colours as if universal nature of this kind. To relish completely all the excel- were about to relapse into the primeval chaos. lencies of the Hebrew literature, the fountains | Thus Jeremiah, in that sublime, and indeed more

than poetical vision, in which is represented he | occurs.
impending desolation of Judea :-

I beheld the earth, and lo! disorder and confusion;
The heavens also, and there was no light.

I beheld the mountains, and lo! they trembled;

On the contrary, when he foretels the restoration Who brought forth the rider and the horse, the army

And with the shadow of my hand have I covered Even now shall it spring forth; will ye not regard it?

To stretch out the heavens, and to lay the foundation In the desert, streams of water. of the earth;

As waters poured down a steep place.

Mic. i. 3, 4.

The earth shook and was alarmed,

And the foundations of the hills rocked with terror;
For the wrath of Jehovah was hot against them.
Before his face a smoke ascended,

And a flame consumed before his presence;
Burning fires were kindled by it.

He bowed the heavens and came down,

And clouds of darkness were beneath his feet.
He rode upon the pinions of the cherubim,
And flew on the wings of the wind.
He concealed himself in a veil of darkness;
A pavilion encompassed him

Of black water, and thick clouds of ether.

Ps. xviii. 7-11. III. These examples, though literally translated, and destitute of the harmony of verse, will sufficiently demonstrate the force, the grandeur, and the sublimity of those images, which, when applied to other events, suggest ideas still greater than when described as plain facts by the pen of the historian, in however magnificent terms: for, to the greatness and sublimity of the images that are alluded to, is added the pleasure and admiration which result from the comparison between them and the objects they are brought to illustrate.

IV. It is evident, however, as well from the examples that have been adduced, as from the nature of the thing itself, that this species of metaphor is peculiarly adapted to the prophetic poetry. For some degree of obscurity is the necessary attendant upon prophecy; not that, indeed, which confuses the diction and darkens the style, but that which results from the necessity of repressing a part of the future, and from the impropriety of making a complete revelation of every circumstance connected with the prediction. The event itself, therefore, is often clearly indicated, but the manner and the circumstances are generally involved in obscurity. To this purpose, imagery, such as we have specified, is excellently adapted; for it enables the prophet more forcibly to impress upon the minds of his auditors, those parts of his subject which admit of amplification; the force, the splendour, the magnitude, of every incident; and at the same time more completely to conceal, what are proper to be concealed, the order, the mode, and the minuter circumstances attending the event. It is also no less apparent, that in this respect, the sacred poetry bears little or no analogy to that of other nations; since neither history nor fable afforded

to the profane writers a sufficient store of this kind of imagery, nor did their subjects in general require that use or application of it.

SECTION XI.

THE INTERPRETATION OF SYMBOLICAL LANGUAGE. The Nature of Symbolical Language-Erroneous Notions entertained upon this Topic-Origin and Progressive Improvement of Writing-Picture Writing-Symbols-Language of Signs-Rules for the Interpretation and Application of Symbols.

HAVING treated of the various means by which an interpreter of the Bible must seek to ascertain the signification of words, and thence the sense of the text; it remains to notice, as distinct branches of interpretation, those which relate to symbols and types. This section will be confined to the interpretation of symbols; types will form the subject of another section.

I. The loose and imperfect notions entertained upon the subject of symbolic language, have induced a very general conviction, that it is necessarily of a vague and indeterminate character; uncertain in its meaning, and subject to no defined principles of interpretation. That such an opinion is erroneous, is demonstrable from the fact, that it is a species of language employed to a very considerable extent in the sacred writings. For, surely, it would be to impeach the divine wisdom, to suppose that God has adopted, as a medium of communicating important truths, that which is extremely liable, from its arbitrary and therefore variable character, to become unintelligible, or to present no certain meaning, after a very short lapse of time. Such is not the nature of symbolic language; for, as Bishop Hurd has remarked, it is reducible to rule, and is constructed on such principles as make it the subject of just criticism and rational interpretation.*

II. But in order to form a just conception of the principles on which this kind of language is constructed, it will be necessary to glance at the probable origin of writing, and then to trace the steps by which it has been brought to its present state of perfection.

1. With this view, let us carry ourselves back in imagination to the infant state of the world, before the use of letters was known, and when the only established mode of communication between man and man was that of vocal language. In such a state of society, how may we rationally suppose that one person would proceed to inform another of any circumstance connected with a par

* Introduction to Discourses on the Study of Prophecy, Vol. I., p. 90.

ticular object. The reply is obvious. If the object were in sight, he would direct attention towards it, and point out the particulars upon which he desired to communicate information; if the object were not in sight, nor readily accessible, he would sketch a rude drawing of it, and substitute that for the object itself. In this manner, the idea of a man, a horse, a house, or a tree, might, as single objects, be as distinctly communicated as by alphabetic characters; while two or more houses might be made significative of a town, and two or more trees of a wood. By thus continuing to copy, in successive series, such things or objects of common notoriety as the train of ideas might call for, a kind of connected narrative of passing events might be drawn up, which, though not calculated for minute accuracy, could be generally understood and interpreted.

city, and so on; the manner in which the symbol was introduced, rendering the idea perfectly intelligible to the persons whom the language was employed to address. And what thus appears to be reasonable in theory, is found to have been actual in fact, among nearly all the nations with which we have become acquainted. Even after languages became more copious, and could furnish many terms proper for expressing abstract ideas and internal qualities, the old method continued, and was blended with oral language, and with literal writing.

4. Strange as this method of imparting knowledge may appear to the moderns, it was brought to such perfection as to possess powers of expression far beyond what can now be easily conceived. This is plain, as Dr. Tilloch has remarked, from the number of synonymous symbols that are 2. Such would be the first attempts of men to known to have been employed in it; nor is it difcommunicate their ideas by written language; but ficult, in some instances, as he further suggests, to it is easy to perceive that the scope of such a see in what manner they were derived. Every species of language must be extremely limited, department of nature furnished objects that were and would totally fail in delineating the internal fitted, in some way, for the purpose: hence, to qualities of objects, of pure mental conceptions, express a king, they were not confined to the brute or of abstract ideas. These, however, were re-creation: whatever was the chief of its kind bequired to be conveyed by writing; and the common consent of mankind, in ascribing peculiar internal qualities and virtues to external forms, and associating the abstract idea with the various instruments by which certain effects were produced, soon enabled them to lay hold of such forms and objects, to express the qualities and virtues themselves.*

came, or by common consent might have become, a legitimate symbol of a monarch; as the eagle, which was so employed, because conceived to possess the first rank among the feathered tribes. Again, as a king's power to subdue his enemies depends on the strength of his kingdom, and as animals with horns are, ceteris paribus, stronger than those which have none, horns are put for 3. Thus, an EYE might be made to signify watch-kingdoms; and kings having the direction of the fulness or care; an ARM, power or might; an ARROW, national force, the same symbol is, by metonymy, a calamity or judgment; a CHAIN, bondage or afflic-put for kings. In like manner, the firmament, tim; a Bow, strength or victory; a SHIELD, defence. to use the ancient term, being elevated above the In the same way, any thing possessing certain qualities might be employed as a substitute for some other object to which one or more of the qualities proper to that object were ascribed. For instance, a Fox might be employed to represent a cunning man; a LAMB, a meek or gentle one; a LION, a strong and powerful one; a TIGER or LEOPARD, a ferocious one; or a BEAR, a fierce and sarage one. If it were wished to represent a man who was both powerful and ferocious, a compound symbol of the lion and the leopard would be resorted to; and to represent one who was cunning and savage, the fox and the bear would be united in one symbol. Or each of these objects might become a representative of the abstract qualities themselves; as of cunning, meekness, strength, fero

* See Warburton's Divine Legation, Vol. II., b. iv., sect. 4, $1,2; Macknight's VIIIth Essay on the Interpretation of Scripture Language; Blair's Lectures, lect. vii.; and Good's Book of Nature, ser es ii. lect. 10.

earth, and esteemed more splendid and glorious than terrestrial objects, was employed to symbolize the most elevated ranks among men; and as, among the planets, the sun possesses incomparably the highest lustre, it became the symbol of supreme power, while the stars were made the symbols of those possessing authority subordinate to the supreme.t

III. The oldest writings which the corroding tooth of time has suffered to reach us, and parti cularly the prophetic books of Scripture, abound in symbolical language.

1. The reason for this use of symbols may not at first appear, because it cannot be supposed that the paucity of the Hebrew language, at the time these writings were published, was such as rendered a resort to the language of symbols necessary; and the usual reason assigned, namely that

Tilloch on the Apocalypse, Dissert. 3, § 2.