PART V.

BIBLICAL NATURAL HISTORY.

4. Each branch of the division is further disposed into triads, thus:

1. THE Holy Scriptures, though not professing | 3. The Mosaic arrangement is simple, but systo communicate a knowledge of what are called tematic; rising from inert matter to vegetation, "the laws of nature," which mean nothing more from this to animal life, and thence to intellectual nor less than the order which the Divine Being being! has prescribed in the natural world; or to describe with any particularity the several properties of the various objects, animate and inanimate, which constitute the world natural; do, in fact, comprise a vast fund of information on both these branches of knowledge, and open up a wide field of observation to the naturalist and the philosopher.

GEOLOGY.

Earth-Air-Water.

BOTANY.

Grass Shrubs Trees.

ZOOGRAPHY.

Aquatics Terrestrials-Rationals.

2. The opening chapter of Genesis at once in-
troduces us to the various topics comprehended The two former being again divided thus :

AQUATICS.

Animalculæ Amphibia-Birds.

TERRESTRIALS.

under the title of this chapter; and that, too, in an orderly and scientific manner: ASTROGRAPHY, METEOROLOGY, GEOLOGY, BOTANY, ZOOGRAPHY;the heavens, the air, and the earth; but as the Domestic Animals-Wild Beasts-Reptiles. latter is that in which we are more immediately interested, the sacred historian has supplied a 5. What a beautiful gradation! Connecting larger measure of information relative to this than links are seen throughout the whole order and to either of the former. Confining himself to this class of being. Among a certain description of part of the Mosaic narrative, Mr. Charles Taylor, stones, some are fibrous, and have laminæ, or a to whom every subsequent writer on this branch kind of leaves; as slate, talc, lythophytes, or stony of natural science has been greatly indebted, dis-marine plants, the amyanthus, or stony flower of tributes the objects of Scripture natural history mines. These lead us from the mineral to the into three classes, conformably with the threefold vegetable kingdom. The plant which appears to arrangement of Moses, in his philosophical and occupy the lowest part of vegetable gradation is beautiful narrative. Thus we have, the truffle. Next come the numerous species of mushrooms and mosses, between which mould and paste seem to form the connecting medium. All these plants are imperfect, and properly constitute only the limits of the vegetable kingdom. The polypus seems to unite the vegetable and the animal kingdom. From its outward appearance, this singular production might be taken for nothing more than a mere plant, were it not seen to perform real animal functions. Worms, which are at the commencement of the animal kingdom, lead us to insects and shell-fish; between which, or, rather, next to them, are found reptiles, which, by means of the water-snake, are united to fish,

I. GEOLOGY. II. BOTANY. III. ZOOGRAPHY. Gen. i. 1-10.—ver. 11, 12.—ver. 20, 26.

Here are the three kingdoms of nature-animal, vegetable, and mineral-opened up to our contemplation. How extended is the range; how teeming with important instruction, and with the materials of devout meditation!

All nature is a glass reflecting God,
As by the sea reflected is the sun,
Too glorious to be gazed on in his sphere!

The flying-fish leads us to fowls. The ostrich,
whose feet much resemble those of the goat, and
which runs rather than flies, appears to connect
birds with quadrupeds. Such is the harmony and
gradation of nature in its varied and, at first sight,
incongruous parts! There are no frightful chasms,
or violent and unnatural transitions; a scale of
the nicest gradation regulates the operations of the
Almighty hand, and powerfully attests the wisdom
by which it is directed.

ALMIGHTY!—we cannot comprehend him ;
Excelling in power and in judgment !*

poems, ancient or modern, the book of Job, proves that the study of natural history, and especially the history of the animal kingdom, was cultivated at a very early period of the world, with a considerable degree of minute attention, in regard to various kinds and species; and the detailed references to the habits and manners of other animals that lie scattered through almost every part of the Hebrew Scriptures, and especially through the books of Psalms and prophecies, with the distinct historical notice which is given of the scientific acquaintance of Solomon with this attractive study (1 Kings iv. 33), show, not only that it was at

6. That most sublime and magnificent of all tended to at a very early period, but that it was a

* Critica Biblica, vol. iii., pp. 19, 20.

very favourite and fashionable pursuit for many ages throughout Egypt, Syria, and Arabia.

CHAPTER I.

ASTROGRAPHY AND METEOROLOGY.

I. ASTRONOMY:-Scantiness of Biblical Information-Know- et al. In Jude 13, there is an allusion to the ledge of Astronomy possessed by the ancient Hebrews-apparently irregular motion of the planets; and

Astrology.-II. METEOROLOGY:-Its Objects-The Seasons

of the Hebrews.

.שמים of meaning is given to the word

when it is known that the Hebrews called their teachers stars, the comparison of Jude seems to be

66

I-1. We have already intimated the scanti-very appropriate. ness of the information furnished in the sacred 2. Whether the Hebrews understood the theory Scriptures relative to the solar system: it is men- of lunar eclipses is doubtful; it seems that they tioned but incidentally, or by the way, and as it did not, inasmuch as they always speak of these stands in immediate relation to our own planet or phenomena in terms which intimate a belief of globe. By employing the plural word, their being effects of the extraordinary power and shemim, heavens, it is believed that Moses meant wrath of God. See Isa. xiii. 10; Ezek. xxiii. to include in his description of the creation the 7, 8; Joel ii. 10; iii. 15, et al. On the circumwhole of the solar system; but this is by no means stances of the sun and moon standing still," at certain, from the mere use of the plural substan- the command of Joshua, as related in the book tive. In the Hebrew Scriptures, a great latitude bearing his name (ch. x. 12), and the shadow on In Job the sun-dial of Ahaz, mentioned in 2 Kings xx., xxxv. 11, it is used to denote the air or atmo- and Isa. xxxv., we must refer to the commentators. sphere; in Psalm xxxiii. 6, it expresses the atmo- Dr. A. Clarke has contributed much and satisfacsphere or planetary vortex; and in Dan. iv. 26, it torily towards explaining the relations in accorddenotes the Deity himself. The ancient Hebrews ance with natural science, and vindicating the believed that there were three heavens; the aërial, sacred writers against the charge of ignorance that in which the birds, &c., fly; the firmament, or ex- has been often urged. In 2 Kings xxiii. 5, and panse; and "the heaven of heavens," or "the Job xxxviii. 32, the planets, in, or constellathird heaven,” the peculiar dwelling-place of Je- tions, are mentioned; and in Job ix. 9, xxxviii. hovah and the blessed in eternity. By the word 31, and Amos v. 8, some of them are called by yp, rekia, which the English translators have name; whence it is evident that the science of rendered, following the vulgate, firmament, the astronomy was not wholly uncultivated amongst the Hebrews described the whole atmosphere, or the ancient Hebrews, as is also, and indeed more clearly, whole of the planetary vortex, in which the 1, demonstrable from the construction of their calenthe wow, and the the whole of the heavenly dars, and the regulation of their fasts, festivals, &c. bodies exist: the stars are spoken of in the 3. Astrology, or the science of reading the stars, Scriptures as being infinite in number; and there was sedulously cultivated in the East, and espeare several beautiful allusions to them in Isa. xl. cially in Chaldea (Isa. xlvii. 13; Jer. 1. 35; Dan. 26; Numb. xxiv. 17; Job xxv. 5; Ps. cxlviii. 3, i. 20; ii. 2, 12, &c.); so that at length “a Chal

dean" became synonymous with 66
an astrologer."
This superstition was prohibited by the law (Lev.
xx. 27; Deut. xviii. 10), although the Hebrews
did not preserve themselves free from its guilt, as
is evident from various passages in the writings of
the prophets.

II.—1. The science of meteorology, which treats of the atmosphere and the various phenomena with which it is connected, will, of course, bear some proportion in the estimation of a people to their attainments in astronomical science. If the one is neglected, the other will not be very sedulously cultivated; and we have no reason to believe that either of them formed very prominent objects of study amongst the ancient Hebrews. As a pastoral people, they were, of course, obliged to pay considerable attention to the state of the atmosphere, the weather, and the seasons; but it is very questionable whether they understood enough of the science of meteorology to be able to explain the principles by which these were regulated or modified.

2. The seasons of the natural year are indicated by a very ancient portion of the sacred history: "While the earth remaineth, seed-time and harvest, and cold and heat, and summer and winter, and day and night, shall not cease," Gen. viii. 22. We shall notice these divisions in order.

(1) Zero, or seed-time, which comprehended, according to our computation of time, from the beginning of October to the end of November,* was the period during which the former rains fell. It seems that about the autumnal equinox these rains commenced, falling for two or three days in heavy showers, after which there was an interval of two or three weeks, when the real former rain set in. It was during this interval of time that the Hebrews ploughed their land, and sowed their wheat and barley.‡

(2) Koreph, the stripping season, or winter, extended from the beginning of December to the end of January. During this period the westerly winds generally blow, which bring heavy rains, especially during the night. The cold is piercing on the elevated parts of the land, and sometimes fatal to those not inured to the climate. David has finely described this season of the year, where, in speaking of the Divine Majesty, he says, "he giveth snow like wool; he scattereth the hoar

* For an account of the computation of time adopted in Judæa, the reader is referred to Part IV., ch. i., ante.

Lightfoot, Hor. Heb., Matt. xii. 1.

For a detailed account of the weather and productions of Judæa, and of the agricultural operations of its inhabitants during these seasons, the reader is referred to Carpenter's Calendarium Palestina, pp. 1-13.

frost like ashes; he casteth forth his ice like morsels; who can stand before his cold?" Ps. cxlvii. 16, 17. And yet there are intervals when the sky is clear, and it is so hot that travellers with difficulty prosecute their journey. De la Roque relates, that he was greatly affected by the heat of the sun, when travelling near Tyre, on the 29th of January. During this season the inhabitants of Palestine, and the adjoining countries, continue to sow their corn and pulse.

(3) Kur, the cold season, embraced February and March. During the early part of this season there are some intense colds; and Shaw states, that it is the usual time at Jerusalem for the falling of snow. As the season advances, however, the atmosphere grows warm, and at length excessively hot, though the rains, accompanied with thunder and hail, are not yet over.§ The fields, which were pretty green before, become, by the springing up of the latter grain, entirely covered with pleasing verdure, and towards the end of March every tree is in full leaf.¶

(4) Ketsur, the harvest, included April and May, when the latter rains fell ;** called harvest rains (Deut. xi. 14, Heb.), because they helped to, fill and ripen the corn for cutting. Thus the former rains fell after the autumnal equinox, at their seed-time, to quicken the grain; and the latter rains, after the vernal equinox, to ensure a plentiful crop. It was owing to these rains that Jordan used to overflow its banks, at the time of the barley-harvest, Josh. iii. 15. When they are past, the weather is variable till May, by cold winds from Libanus;++ from the end of which month till the middle of September, there are few or no showers. In the Plain of Jericho, the heat is excessive at this time; but in other parts of the country the spring is delightful. After the rains cease, the corn soon arrives at maturity, and the harvest commences, and continues till about the middle of June. It is impossible to describe the rich fragrance of an eastern climate, at this season of the year, and before the excessive heat comes on. The air is filled with odours of plants, and flowers, and trees, which the breeze wafts about in most delicious freshness. Solomon says, "The winter is past, the rain is over and gone; the flowers appear on the earth; the time of the singing of birds is come; and the voice of the turtle is heard in our land; the fig-tree putteth forth her green figs, and the vines, with the tender grape,

Voyage de Syrie, &c., tom. i., p. 17.

§ Maundrell, pp. 13, 20, 57, &c.; Pococke, vol. ii., p. 11. ¶ Russell, p. 10.

** Lightfoot, Hor. Heb, Luke iv. 25.

+ De La Valle, pp. 121, 122.

give a good smell,” Cant. ii. 11—13. Before the
middle of May, however, the verdure begins to
fade, and by the end of the month all becomes
parched and barren. To the extreme heat which
now prevails, there are many beautiful allusions
in the sacred writings. As when Isaiah is de-
scribing the peaceful and happy reign of the Mes-
siah, he says,
"And there shall be a tabernacle for
a shadow in the day-time, from the heat, and for
a place of refuge, and for a covert from storm and
from rain," chap. iv. 6. He uses the same lan-
guage in describing God's care over the poor:
"Thou shalt bring down the noise of strangers, as
the heat in a dry place; even the heat with the
shadow of a cloud; the branch of the terrible ones
shall be brought low," chap. xxv. 5.

(5) Kiitz, summer, comprised the months of
June and July, during which the sky is clear,
and the sun's rays so intense, that the streams
which in winter rushed with the impetuosity of
torrents, either dwindle into brooks, or become
entirely dry. The winds generally blowing from
the west, refresh the air in the latter part of the
day, and the dews being very moderate, the in-
habitants pass the night on the roofs of their
houses.*
Thunder is very uncommon in this cli-

*Russell, p. 152.

mate during the summer season, and it seldom or never rains. When it does rain, it is usually preceded by a whirlwind, with clouds of dust; it is "with a stormy whirlwind, or an overflowing shower, or great hail," Ezek. xiii. 12, 13. What has been said of the heat which prevails at this season of the year, is chiefly applicable to the lower parts of the country; for, even in the hottest months, the regions of Libanus are so cold at times, during the night, as to render the use of fires indispensable. ‡

(6) Chum, the heat, comprehended August and September. During this season the heat increases, and "the drought of summer" is experienced, Ps. xxxii. 4. The sky is serene and fair during the day; but in the night a copious dew falls, which either saturates the earth, or appears as hoar-frost : on the appearance of the sun it ascends as smoke from an oven, and becomes invisible. Lightning is also frequent in the night-time; and, if seen in the western hemisphere, it portends rain, often accompanied with thunder. During the heat, at noon, it is usual for persons to retire to rest.|| See Judg. iii. 24; 2 Sam. iv. 5.

Importance of the Science of Geology, and its Relation to the historian describes briefly, but particularly and Bible-Mosaic Narrative of the Creation-Conformity of Modern Philosophy with the Hebrew Cosmogony-The De- systematically, the order and process of the work luge attested by Modern Discoveries-The Age of the Earth of creation; beginning with the heavens, or solar -Hebrew Geological Terms. system generally, and thence descending to the 8, earth—or, as the word implies, every thing relating to the terr-aque-aërial globe; that is, all that belongs to the solid and fluid parts of our world, and its surrounding atmosphere.* The narrative of Moses furnishes a fair subject of investigation for the philosopher and the natural historian; and it is gratifying to know that the discoveries of modern science have all tended to illustrate and confirm the particulars included in that narrative.

THE intimate connexion of the science which treats of the substance of the earth, of the causes by which its several parts have been either arranged or disorganized, of the operations in which the stratification of its materials have originated, of the inequalities of its surface, and of the numerous bodies that enter into its composition, with various portions of Scripture, and especially with the Mosaic account of the creation and the deluge, gives it a strong claim to rank amongst the necessary studies of the interpreter and the theologian.

2. In the first chapter of Genesis, the Hebrew

3. From the surveys that have been made of

* See Dr. Clarke, Annot. in loco.