mistake of the Roman people in this verb, and, indeed, as regards the termination, in all verbs, while the people of Florence frequently say sa-réb-ba-mo for sa-rém-mo; and in this point the two dialects, which are in many respects the purest, are equally faulty. 21. Saria, and, generally speaking, the termination a, for ebbe, in the third person singular of this tense, is used in prose as well as in poetry. Fo-ra, for sarei and sarebbe, is poetical. The terminations of the conditionals in êb-be and eb-be-ro or eb-bo-no are, with regard to the pronunciation of the open é, alike in all verbs. 22. The termination eb-bo-no, in all cases, is by many preferred to b-be-ro, on account of its milder sound. It is, like the termination í-a-no, more frequently used in poetry or in solemn prose. The termination iê-no, for i-a-no-as sa-riê-no for sa-ría-no-is also not inelegant, particularly in poetry. Fô-ra-no, for sa-réb-be-ro, is poetical. III.-REMARKS ON THE IMPERATIVE MOOD. 1. A milder form of the imperative mood is the future tense, which particularly is in use when what is ordered is not immediately to be done, but after some other act; as, por-tá-te qué-sta lêt-te-ra ál-la pô-sta, pô-i an-de-ré-te ál-la spe-zie-rí-a, e pren-de-ré-te dú-e ón-ce di Chi-na, carry this letter to the post, then you will go to the apothecary's shop, and take two ounces of bark. Sois aimé, be thou loved. Present. have been loved. Il aurait été aimé. IMPERATIVE MOOD. Soyons aimés, let us be loved. Soyez aimés, be ye or you loved. SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. Que je sois aimé, that I may be 2. The infinitive with the particle non before it is the negative Qu'il soit aimé, let him be loved. 3. Siino, for sieno or siano, and sii, for sia egli or ella, are erroneous. IV. REMARKS ON THE SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. Que je fusse aimé, that I might be que nous fussions aimés. Que vous fussiez aimés. Present. Past. | Que j'aie été aimé, that I may have Que tu aies été aimé. [been loved. Qu'il ait été aimé. Que nous ayous été aimés. Que vous ayez été aimés. Pluperfect. Que j'eusse été aimé, that I might have Que nous eussions été aimés. INFINITIVE MOOD. Present.-Etre aimé, to be loved. 1. Some ancients wrote s-le for sía, thou mayst be. Poets appear to prefer sia to sii, to prevent the jingling of the two i's. 2. Also pas-sá-to im-per-fêt-to con-di-zio-ná-le, because this Etant aimé, being loved. Ayant été aimé, having Avoir été aimé, to have tense, as I stated before, generally preceded by se (if), goes together with the conditional present. 3. Fussi, fussi, fusse, fussimo, fuste, fussero, for fossi, fossi, fosse, fossimo, foste, fossero, is often found in old writers, but is now obsolete; as, fusti and fuste, for fosti and foste. 4. Fós-so-no, in familiar language, is also in use for fossero, but the latter is the better form. 5. The pluperfect subjunctive tense goes together with the conditional past. (The Key to Exercise 31 will be given in the next lesson.) Tu ne t'es pas flatté. Il ne s'est pas flatté. Nous ne nous sommes pas flattés. Vous ne vous êtes pas flattés. Ils ne se sont pas flattés. IMPERATIVE MOOD. Ne te flatte pas, do not flatter thyself. Qu'il ne se flatte pas, let him not flatter himself. Ne nous flattons pas, let us not flatter ourselves. Ne vous flattez pas, do not flatter yourselves. Qu'ils ne se flattent pas, let them not flatter themselves. 358.-INTERROGATIVE FORM OF THE REFLECTIVE VERB. INDICATIVE MOOD. Present. flatte? do I flatter myself? myself? Sing. 1. -oives -oive -evions -eviez 2. REC-Ois 3. -oive -evaient -urent SUBJUNCTIVE. .evront -evraient INFIN. PARTICIPLE. Present, Past. -usse -evoir -usses -ût -ussions -ussiez -evant -, . (sing.). -us, m. (plur.). 1. We call those simple tenses, which do not borrow one of the tenses of the auxiliaries avoir and être. 2. We call those compound tenses, which are composed of the tenses of avoir and être, and the participle past of a verb. (2.) Among the simple tenses, five are called primitive, because they serve to form the other tenses. They are 1. The present of the indicative; 2. The past definite; 3. The present of the infinitive; 4. The participle present; 3. The participle past. (3.) The other simple tenses, called derived tenses, are formed from the primitive. (4.) The present of the indicative forms the imperative by suppressing the pronouns: as, je chante, chante; nous chantons, vous chantez, chantons, chantes. It will be seen that the third person of the singular and plural of the imperative properly the third person of the singular and plural of the subjunctive, used imperatively. (5.) The past definite forms the imperfect of the subjunctive, by changing i into sse for the first conjugation: as, je chantai, que je chantasse, and by adding se for the other conjugations: 24, je finis, que je finisse; je reçus, que je reçusse; je vendis, que je vendisse. (6.) The present of the infinitive forms 1. The future absolute, by adding ai for the first and second conjugations: as, chanter, je chanterai; finir, je finirai; and by changing oir and re into rai for the other two conjugations: 23, recevoir, je recevrai; rendre, je rendrai. 2. The conditional present is by French grammarians formed from the future by the addition of s: as, je chanterai, je chanterais; je finirai, ie finirais; je recevrai, je recevrais; je vendrai, je vendrais. (7.) The participle present forms 1. The imperfect of the indicative by changing ant into ais: as, chantant, je chantais; finissant, je finissais; recevant, je recevais; vendant, je vendais. 2. The present of the subjunctive by changing ant into e: as, hantant, que je chante; finissant, que je finisse; vendant, que je vende. Exception.-In verbs of the third conjugation the termination cant is changed into oive: as, recevant, que je reçoive. (8.) This formation must not prevent the change of y into i, according to Rule (2.) § 49. (9.) The participle past forms all the compound tenses of verbs with the aid of the auxiliaries avoir and être: as, j'ai chanté, je suis aimé, j'avais chanté, j'étais aimé. Imperfect. Qu'il y eût, that there might be. Present. Y avair, to be there. MOOD. Past. Qu'il y ait eu, that there may have been. Pluperfect. Qu'il y eût eu, that there might have boon. INFINITIVE MOOD. Present. Past. Y avoir eu, to have been there. PARTICIPLE. COMPOUND. RECREATIVE SCIENCE.-XI. When two THE Tentoonstelling, or International Exhibition of Holland, It would be amusing to ask the author of this paragraph if the reflection of the streets of London, or its innumerable ocThis utilitarian age, disdaining to waste time in looking at cupants, adopts the same idea in another fashion, and endeavours to illuminate dark and dingy back offices by reflecting in light, although it is drawn from the half-obscured, soot-defiled beams of the sun which may be collected in a street of modern Babylon. There is a pretty little toy (Figs. 1 and 2) called the "Magic Designer," in which the reflecting surfaces of two small perpendicular mirrors, at right angles to each other, are placed inwards, and fixed in a semi-circular card-board box, which is $61-2-PARADIGM OF THE UNIPERSONAL VERB Y AVOIR, open at the top and bottom. The spectator looks through the to be there. INDICATIVE MOOD. Past Indefinite. top, and places any small article that he wishes multiplied at the bottom. The toy is, in fact, a simple modification of Sir David Brewster's Kaleidoscope, invented and patented in the Il y a eu, there has been, there have year 1814. The patent, however, could not be maintained, as been. Imperfect. Il y avait, there was, Pluperfect. there were. Il y avait eu, there had been. he had, unfortunately, shown the instrument to two or three philosophical instrument-makers before securing the proper legal documents; and as the letter and not the spirit of the law was insisted on in those days, this objection of the opposing parties was held to be fatal, and Sir David lost his patent. When a small object is placed as described, an harmonious circular figure, consisting of eight sections, is apparent; altogether, the Magic Designer is not to be despised, and some very pretty effects are produced by placing fern leaves, flowers, bits of coloured worsted, paintings, mosaic drawings, on a sheet of paper, and then placing the instrument upon them; thereby, as the "affiche" to the toy states, not only affording infinite amusement to everybody, but being also of great value, as the patterns may be copied at leisure. Continuing the optical amusements, it may be stated that the Encyclopédie Méthodique, of 1792, thus describes the method of drawing a distorted figure on a plane surface, which, when observed from a certain point, recovers its former shape and true proportions:-Having drawn correctly on a sheet of paper the figure proposed to be designed, enclose it in a square, the triangle EG H, and by drawing those parts of the outline contained in the different squares of ABCD in the expanded form in the corresponding trapeziums or perspective squares, the portrait becomes distorted. It is, however, soon restored to the right appearance if viewed through a hole K (Fig. 3), so hollowed out in the piece of wood L that the hole looked through is the apex of a cone, the base of which is directed towards the distorted drawing. The piece of wood L is placed upright at the point н, and its height must not exceed the distance between H and 1. Hutton states that there was in the Convent of the Minimes, in the Place Royale, Paris, the distorted picture of a Magdalen at prayers, which could be restored to a perfect and beautiful work of art if looked at in the manner already described. The Encyclopédie Méthodique of Montucla, though presenting many ingenious optical illusions, is not quite to be relied on in the philosophic explanation given of some of the effects, though Hutton, in his translation of this work, accepts them. Thus, as at ABCD (Fig. 3), and divide the latter into several other small squares, by dividing the sides, say into seven equal parts, and then drawing straight lines through the corresponding points of division, just as the engravers do when they intend to make a reduced drawing from a picture; mark out on a board a parallelogram, EBF G, and divide one of the two shorter sides, as E G, into as many equal parts as DC (one of the sides of the square ABCD), and therefore into seven equal portions. From the centre of the other side of the parallelogram BF, marked H, draw straight lines to the points of division of the opposite side EG, the outside lines of which will be HE, HG. Having then assumed at pleasure, in the side B F, the point 1, above the point H, as the height of the eye above the plane of the picture, draw from I to the point E the straight line E I, which will cut those lines coming from the point H in the points 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7. Through these intersecting points draw straight lines parallel to each other, and to the base EG of the triangle ECH, which will thus be divided into as many trapeziums (plain figures contained, as Hutton says, under four right lines, of which both the opposite pairs are not parallel) as there are little squares in the square A B C D. By transferring the portrait contained in the square ABCD to "faire qu'un objet vu distinctement, et sans l'interposition d'aucun corps opaque ou diaphane, paroisse renversé à l'œil nu;" i.e., in plain English, "to make an object, which can be seen distinctly without the interposition of any opaque or semi-transparent body, appear to be inverted:"-Cut a slip of card-board (Fig. 4) three inches wide and twelve inches long, and bend up the two ends, A B and CD, so that they each take up three inches, leaving six inches in the centre. In the middle of the end A в make a round hole, about a line and a-half in diameter, and in the centre of it fix a pin, or the point of a needle, as shown at E (Fig. 4). Exactly opposite to it in the other end CD. make a hole F with a large pin. If the eye is now applied to E whilst turning the hole F towards the flame of a candle, or other bright source of light, the head of the pin now appears to be in creased in size, and in an inverted position, as represented at 6. Montucla says, and Hutton tacitly approves by repeating it, that "the reason of this inversion is, that the head of the pin being exceeding near the pupil of the eye, the rays which proceed from the point F are greatly diverged on account of the hole F; and instead of a distinct and inverted image, there is painted at the bottom of the eye a kind of shadow, in an upright position. But inverted images on the retina convey the idea of upright objects; consequently, as this kind of image is upright, it must convey to the mind the idea of an inverted object." The philosophic reader would rather say it must convey to the mind a reductio ad absurdum. The fact is, that the rays from the candle which pass through the hole F are highly divergent, and, crossing at the aperture F, are inverted, and any opaque object held in such rays would also be inverted. The increased size of the pinhead is caused by its proximity to the eye, and the greater angle subtended from that encounter. LEFT RIGHT his great attachment to the deceased lady. He then removes the vase of flowers, and arranges the bust in its place on the pedestal, and, being quite overcome with his feelings, spreads his handkerchief over it. He now exclaims, Fi. 5. whilst lifting the handkerchief for a moment, "But just one parting look, and then-" and here, to his utter surprise, the bust speaks, "Oh, Blue Beard, why did you kill me? why did you kill me?" Blue Beard answers, "It does speak! Ah! why did I kill you? because I loved you." But the bust replies, "You did not kill me with kindness, you brute!" Blue Beard replies, "Don't get excited," etc. etc., and the bust having sung a song, and made many insulting remarks about Blue Beard, the latter rushes upon it, smothers the bust again in his handkerchief, and locks it up in the box, the bust being heard in the box apparently to say, "Let me out! let me out! cruel, cruel man!" Fig.6. The illusions produced by the reflection of light may be brought to a close by a description of a most amusing and very startling effect, which the inventors, Mr. Thomas Tobin and the writer, called "Blue Beard's Closet; or, the Effigy of the Dear Defunct;" provoking the question-is it a mask or a face? A slender white and gold column, with a vase of flowers standing on it, is apparent in the centre of a chamber painted in the Alhambra style, and having the lower part or skirting hung with crimson cloth to the same height as the pillar, which is, say, three feet high, and five inches in diameter. Into the back part of the pillar two mirrors, cut in the shape shown in Fig. 5, with the edges ground and polished, are inserted at an angle of 45 degrees, as delineated in the groundplan (Fig. 6). By throwing the light skilfully from the top, from a point facing the mirrors arranged in the pillar standing in the middle of the chamber, the fluted pillar only is visible with the general interior, but the mirrors are quite invisible, because they reflect the sides of the apartment, and as all objects appear to come in a straight line from the point where they are seen the spectators think they see the bk of the aperture. The amusement then begins by Blue Beard walking in and pretending to shed tears on the loss of his beloved Jumna, whose effigy or bust he is supposed to keep locked up in a box, which he proceeds to open, and, looking at the bust, displays it to the andience, whilst making many hypocritical professions of Fig. 7. Blue face and style of hair and head-dress has been accurately copied in the wax bust. When the wax bust is placed on the pedestal and covered with the handkerchief, Beard stands in front, and conceals from the audience the change which is instantly made, by the living woman placing her own head on the top of the pillar, her body being concealed by the glasses. She therefrom talks and sings to the astonishment of the audience; and when, at last, Blue Beard rushes upon the bust, to hide it with his handker chief, the real head is withdrawn and the wax one put on the pedestal, which is removed in the sight of the audience and locked up in the box, the concealed woman crying out all the time, "Let me out! let me out!" and causing her voice to become gradually weaker. |