THE THEORY AND PRACTICE OF

EDUCATION.-V.

HOW TO TEACH.

In this paper we propose to give some account of the most useful methods of teaching. To enter fully into the details of this subject would be to write a book; but we trust that, even in the small space allotted to us, we may be able to offer some useful hints.

Given, a person well versed in general knowledge, and specially acquainted with the details of some particular branches, the problem which presents itself for solution here is indicated by the question, "In what way shall such a person impart to others the knowledge which he has won for himself?" It is clear that the answer resolves itself into two parts: first, as to the manner in which the teacher should arrange and prepare the various parts of each subject of instruction, so that the easy should come before the difficult, and every step be a preparation for that which is to follow it; and, secondly, that such plans should be adopted as will best tend to excite the attention of the pupil, and dispose him to exert all his mental powers in order to comprehend, to appropriate, and to assimilate the instruction which is being given to him. In selecting these plans, and still more in using them, the teacher should bear continually in mind that the communication of knowledge is to be employed as the means of improving and training the mental powers, and, where religious instruction is concerned, the moral emotions.

1. The first of these plans or methods of teaching which we shall notice is the rote or memory method. In this system certain text-books are put into the hands of the pupils, and a portion is daily given to them to commit to memory. The action of the teacher is confined to appointing the lessons, hearing them recited, and deciding when the pupil may pass on to the next portion of his work. This method is probably very ancient, and was widely prevalent in our own country until recent times. We can scarcely conceive anything more irksome, more insufferably disgusting, to an educated and thoughtful man, than to be compelled to spend months and years in such an employment; nor any mode of instruction more fitted to cramp and dwarf the mind of the pupil, and fill him with dislike, contempt, and dread of the man who could compel him to spend his youthful years in the pursuit of knowledge on such a road as this. It had, however, its good points, and may occasionally be employed with good effect by a judicious teacher. But a lesson of this kind, where the very words are to be learnt in their exact order, should seldom, if ever, be given without a previous explanatory exercise. If, for instance, a passage of Scripture or a hymn is appointed, the teacher should take care that it is well understood before it is committed to memory. For the enunciations in Euclid, and, indeed, in all cases where it is important that the words in their exact order should be remembered, this method may be employed with advantage. And when such lessons are recited to the teacher, not the least assistance should be given in the way of prompting or suggesting, when the learner is at fault; all help of this nature defeats the object for which the lesson is given; if it is not learnt perfectly, it is useless. If the pupil cannot recall the words of the lesson when required, without help, he must either have his prompter at hand when required-a very improbable occurrence or his labour will have been in vain.

2. Another popular method of giving instruction is by means of lectures. Crowds of people of both sexes, of all ages, and of all degrees of knowledge and mental power, flock to hear a popular lecturer on some interesting topic in science or literature. They sit passively, and listen with differing degrees of attention, while the speaker pours forth eloquent platitudes and superficial remarks on the subject of discourse; and after an hour or two spent in this manner the multitudes disperse to their homes, to admire for a short period, and then to forget. It is very doubtful whether any appreciable amount of lasting good is produced by exercises of this kind-they furnish a pleasing amusemen, and but little more. We have no doubt that one hour of earnest and patient private study will do more to train thead, discipline the intellect, and fit it for the acquisition, retention, and utilisation of knowledge than almost any number of lectures such as these. But there is another class of lectures to which these remarks will not apply with equal force. In many places of instruction courses of lectures are delivered on given

subjects, and the students take notes while the lectures are in progress, and read text-books on the subject during the intervals. An examination at the close of the course tests the degree in which the pupils have benefited by their attendance. Even in this case, however, the private study is of equal value at least with the public lecture.

on

3. The interrogative method of teaching is now in very general use, both in schools and private classes; in other words, it may also be correctly termed the art of questioning; it is an art requiring for its acquisition a large amount of practice, and probably a natural liking for the work of teaching. No quantity of explanation and examples will make a skilful questioner; the matter is a practical one, and is to be learnt by doing. Questions may be divided into several kinds, such as introductory questions, explanatory or teaching questions, and questions of examination. Introductory questions are used before beginning a new lesson, in order to ascertain the state of the pupil's mind, to discover what he knows of the subject, and to connect the lesson with those which have gone before. The teacher thus learns how to suit his instruction to the wants of his scholars, and avoids the waste of time and power which would arise from dwelling long on what is already known. This connection of present teaching with past knowledge is most important. The memory, as we have explained at some length in a previous paper, is so constituted that it is unable to retain isolated knowledge. It remembers best, and holds with the most tenacious grasp, whatever is firmly linked with previous knowledge. Explanatory or teaching questions are employed during the progress of the lesson. By their means the instruction involved in the lesson is questioned into the pupils. In a lesson "The Form and Motions of the Earth," for instance, the teacher might ask, What is the form of the earth? and the pupils would probably answer, Round. Teacher: How do you know? Pupils: We have been told so. Teacher: But can you prove it ? Silence, and then the answer, No. Teacher: Which of you have been by the seaside ? Did you watch a vessel leaving the land, and sailing out to sea? which did you lose sight of first-the masts or the body of the vessel ? Answer: The hull. If the sea were flat, which would have first disappeared ? Answer: The masts. Why? Because they are not so large as the hull. What, then, hid the hull from view before the masts were lost sight of? The sea. What does this prove? That the sea is round. Give me another word. Convex. And what gives this form to the sea? Answer: The earth. What, then, is the form of the earth? Answer: Round. [Some of the more obvious answers in this example have been omitted, in order to economise space.] The teacher might then speak of eclipses of the moon, and by questions bring out the facts that they are caused by the shadow of the earth being thrown on the moon. and that in every case the outline of this shadow is circular. This could not happen were not the earth convex in every direction, and therefore it is a sphere, or of some form nearly approaching it. This simple and brief example will serve to make clear, in some measure, what we mean by the term "teaching questions." Without actually giving the information, as in a lecture, we lead the pupils to make the inferences and gain the knowledge for themselves; the mind is kept active, and therefore grows and strengthens, and the pupil takes pleasure in the exercise, because he feels that he is at work and that his labour is profitable. The same process of leading the pupil to get the required information for himself should, of course, be continued throughout the lesson.

This mode of questioning may also be used with great advantage in the course of a reading lesson. If the scholars are allowed to read through the lesson without explanation, the mechanical difficulty of making out the words, and, in most cases, the frequent occurrence of phraseology to which they are unaccustomed, will prevent them from giving the requisite attention to the meaning of what they read. It is therefore of great importance that appropriate questions should be put while the lesson is going on. Difficult words and phrases should be taken up as they occur, and the meaning should be questioned out of the pupils rather than told them, on the principle which we have just illustrated. An exercise of this kind often taxes most severely the skill, tact, and knowledge of the teacher; but the benefit conferred by it, both on himself and his pupils, can scarcely be overrated. When the reading is completed, examination questions should be freely put, with books closed or

Sohn, he painted his cousin and his son; literally, and the son of this one, i.e., the cousin's son.

(6.) The pronouns, both demonstrative and determinative, are frequently made more intensive by the particle eben, even, very: eben diese Blume, this very flower; eben das Kind, that same child; eben derselbe, the very same.

§ 63.-DETERMINATIVE PRONOUNS. (1.) The pronouns of this class are commonly set down among the demonstratives. Their distinctive feature, however, is that of being used where an antecedent is to be limited by a relative clause succeeding, and so rendered more or less prominent or emphatic; thus, der, welcher klug handelt, verdient Lob, he (that man) who acts wisely, deserves praise. From this use they derive the name determinative. They are—

Der, that; that one; he.

Derjenige, that; that person (strongly determinative).
Derselbe, the same (denoting identity).
Selbiger, the same (seldom used).

Solcher, such (marking similarity of kind or nature). (2.) Der, when used in connection with a noun, is declined like the demonstrative ter-that is, like the definite article; when used absolutely, it differs from the demonstrative ver only in the genitive plural; taking berer instead of deren.

(3.) Derjenige and derselbe are compounded of ter and the parts jenige and selbe respectively. In declining, both parts of each must be inflected; ter, like the article, and jenige and selbe after the New Form of adjectives; thus

Wer has no plural, but, like e8, is sometimes used before plural verbs; as, Wer sind diese Leute? who are these people? The dative singular neuter is wanting, but is supplied by an adverbial compound; as, wozu (wo+zu), whereto, or to which; womit, where-with, with what; wovon, whereof, of what, etc.

§ 65.-OBSERVATIONS ON THE RELATIVES. (1.) Of the pronouns declined above, welcher, welche, welches is the only one that can be used in conjunction with a noun, after the manner of an adjective; thus, welcher Mann, which man (not wer Mann); and, except when so joined with a noun, the genitive (both singular and plural) of welcher is never used, but,

in place of it, the corresponding parts of ber; that is, deffen, deren, dessen, for the singular, and teren for the plural; as, der Mann, tessen (not welches) Freund ich bin, the man, whose friend I am; die Bäume, deren (not welcher) Blüthen abgefallen sind, the trees whose blossoms have fallen off.

(2.) Der, die, das, as a relative, like the English word that, is used as a sort of substitute for the regular relative. Thus its genitive is employed in place of that of welcher, because the genitive of the latter (welches, welcher, welches) being the same in form as the nominative masculine and neuter, might occasion mistake. So after the pronouns of the first and second person (and of the third, when used for the second) welcher is never employed, but ber, thus:

In each ease here, the personal pronoun is repeated after the relative. In translating, of course, the pronoun repeated is to be omitted; or the order of the words being reversed (ich der, instead of ter ich), the rendering may be I, who saw, etc. It must be added, that when the pronoun is not repeated, the verb will be in the third person, and in agreement with the relative; as, tu warst es, der es mir sagte, thou wast the one that told

me so.

(3.) Wer, was, is an indefinite relative, employed wherever any uncertainty exists about the antecedent; thus, können Sie mir sagen, wer rieses gethan hat? can you tell me who has done this? Ich weiß nicht, was er sagte, I do not know what he said.

(4.) Often, wer, was has at once the force of both a relative and an antecedent; as, wer auf dem Wege der Tugend wandelt, ist glücklich, he that walks in the path of virtue, is happy; was gerecht ist, verdient Lob, what, or that which is right, deserves praise.

(5.) Wer always begins a clause or sentence, and never comes after the word which it represents; was may or may not begin a clause, and may or may not come after its proper antecedent; thus, wer nicht hören will, der muß fühlen, he who will not hear, must feel; ich sage, was ich weiß, I say what I know; alles, was ich gesehen babe, all that I have seen; was gerecht ist, verdient Lob, what is right, deserves praise.

The form we occurs in the compounds weßwegen, weshalb, on which, or what account.

(6.) Welcher, -e, -ce, is often employed as an indefinite adjective pronoun (see § 35. 1).

§ 66.-INTERROGATIVE PRONOUNS. (1.) The interrogative pronouns that is, those used in asking questions-are the following :

Wer? was? who? what?
Welcher? who? which?

Was für ein? what sort of a ?

(2.) They are the same in form as the relatives-or rather the relatives themselves, employed in a different way. Wer, was, and welcher, welche, welches, are declined just as when they are relatives, except that the pronoun welches, -e, -es, when interrogative, never adopts the genitive of der.

(3.) Wer and was (who? what?) can never be joined with a noun. They are used when the question is put in a manner general and indefinite. Welcher, welche, welches, on the other hand, have a more definite reference, and may be employed adjectively; thus, welcher Mann? which man? etc.

(4.) Was für ein (literally, what for a?) is a form used in inquiring as to the kind, quality, or species of a thing; as, was für ein Mann? what sort of a man? was für eine Frau? what sort of a woman? was für ein Kind? what kind of a child?

(5, 6, 7.) The only part of was für ein capable of inflection is ein; which, when the thing referred to in the question is expressed, takes the form of the indefinite article; when it is left understood, ein is inflected like an adjective of the Old Form. The plural, in both cases, omits the article, and stands simply thus, was für.

§ 67.-OBSERVATIONS ON THE INTERROGATIVES. (1.) Observe further, that cin, in was für ein, is sometimes omitted in the singular, especially before words denoting mato

rials; as, was für Zeug? what sort of stuff? was für Wein? what kind of wine?

(2.) That was für ein, and also welch (that is, welcher, without the terminations of declension) are occasionally employed in expressions of surprise or wonder; as, was für ein Mann, or welch ein Mann! what a man!

(3.) That was is sometimes used for warum; thus, was schlägst du mich? why strikest thou me?

KEY TO EXERCISES IN LESSONS IN GERMAN.
EXERCISE 159 (Vol. III., page 179).

1. Sagen Sie mir, ob das Ihr eigenes Pferd ist? 2. Jener Pächter sagte mir manches über Landwirthschaft. 3. Ich werde heute nicht aus geben, es sei denn, daß die Nothwendigkeit mich zwingt. 4. Ihr werdet nicht in das Himmelreich kommen, es sei denn, daß Ihr die Wohlthaten tes Herrn anerkennt. 5. Mein Bruder ging gestern fort, und wir haben nichts von ihm gehört. 6. Es versteht sich von selbst, daß die Menschen, Thiere und Pflanzen nicht ohne Nahrung leben können. 7. Mein Messer ist fort,

LESSONS IN BOTANY.-XLVI. SECTION CXXIII.-FUNGI (continued). We shall now proceed to a description of the classification that has been adopted for the curious vegetable productions called fungi, a term which has been adopted into the English language directly from the Latin, but which is derived from the Greek σroyyia (spon'-gi-a), a sponge.

Fungi are classed under two primary divisions-Hymenomy. cetes and Gasteromycetes; the seed lying externally in the former, and internally in the latter. These divisions are sub. divided into four tribes-1st, Pileati; 2nd, Clavati; 3rd, Mitrati; and 4th, Cupulati. In each of these tribes we find esculent species, although most of that description are found in the first tribe, the Pileati, and of that tribe the genus Agaricus supplies the largest number of any of the genera.

The

All agarics are furnished with a fleshy pileus or cap, a stipes or stem, and gills placed at right angles with their stem. species of this genus differ widely in size, shape, and colour; but all agree in the possession of the parts which we have named. Our own favourite meadow mushroom (Fig. 305) is the first we will describe, of which old Gerard says:—

"The meadowe mushroom is in kinde the best;
It is ill trusting any of the rest.”

Every one considers himself a complete judge of this species, and few hesitate to present at their table a dish of these agree able fungi, without taking any other means of proving their trustworthiness, than that most fallacious mode of directing their cook to stir them whilst dressing with a silver spoon; in full belief that if their juices do not tarnish the silver, there can be no injurious specimen amongst them.

But although this kind is in such general use in England, yet it is by no means more easy to discriminate it from other species, than it is to discriminate most other kinds. "No fungus," says Dr. Badham, "presents itself under such a variety of forms or such singular diversities of aspect. The inference is plain; less discrimination than that employed to distinguish this, would enable any one who should take the trouble to recognise at a glance many of those esculent species which every spring and autumn fill our plantations and pastures with plenteousness." The cap of this mushroom is in some individuals snowy white and smooth; in others, brown and scaly; in some instances the gills are of a delicate pink; in others of a deep, rusty black; some grow broad and flat, others in the form of buttons, looking almost like a puff-ball of a soft, smooth texture, and of a pure white colour. The stem in some varieties is nearly straight, as in the larger one in our cut; in others it is broader, by one-third, at the top than at the bottom, and altogether shorter than it is wide, the under part of the cap being upturned at an obtuse angle with the bulky stem so as to display the coarse-looking dark gills which line it.

It is a pleasant thing to sally forth early in the day, under the first burst of sunshine which breaks out on a soft clear morning in September, and to see how the night dews have been at work in hastening the growth of fungi. We need hardly say that mushrooms are excellent pickled. The way to do this is to select all the buttons; place them, skins and all, in a stewpan with allspice, salt, and pepper; stew them until they have given out every drop of their juice, and (like children who give and then repent, and take back again) have re-absorbed all those juices, charged with the flavour of the spices among which they have been stewing. When this process is completed, add as much hot vinegar as will cover your mushrooms, boil them just for a minute, and they are finished. The large broad specimens are delicious, broiled with salt and pepper; and the middlesized kinds, stewed in their own juice, with a little pepper, salt, and butter. Whatever the Italians may say, the Agaricus campestris is a delicious article of food; and it is a very rare thing for any injurious effect to arise from partaking of them.

The Agaricus deliciosus, the orange milk-agaric, is another fungus which is in high repute; it may be found in the fir plantations of Scotland, as also on those of the barren hills at Barr in Staffordshire, as well as near Guildford in Surrey, and in some other places. This fungus is of a dull-reddish orange, with a somewhat viscid cap, frequently lined with concentric circles of rather a brighter hue. It has narrow branched gills approaching flame colour; the stem is orange, solid, and tapering downwards, slightly bent, from two to three inches high, and covered at the base with short-pointed hairs; the flesh of the cap, or pileus, is firm, and filled with red orange milk, which turns green when exposed to the air, as does the whole plant when bruised. Badham and Loudon agree in stating it to be excellent food, and much in request in the Italian markets. Sowerby says, "It was very luscious eating, full of rich gravy, with a little the flavour of mussels;" and Sir James Smith, "that it really deserves its name, Agaricus deliciosus, being the Badham says, "It may be most delicious mushroom known." served with white sauce, or fried; but the best way to cook them, after duly seasoning with salt and pepper, and putting a piece of butter upon each, is to bake them in a closely-covered pie-dish for about three-quarters of an hour."

Another of the Pileati which we must notice is the Cantha

rellus cibarius (Fig. 306), an exceedingly pretty fungus, of a soft apricot hue throughout both cap and stem; and instead of gills, it is furnished with thick veins or plaits, very elegant in It is irregular in form, and the stems are seldom, appearance. Loudon says that the best if ever, in the centre of the cap. way of preserving them for use is to string them in rows after they have become flaccid, and hang them in a dry place, where they can have plenty of air; they then form a delicious ingredient in rich gravies. Vittadini, an Italian writer on the subject, says that the common people in Italy dry or pickle them, or keep them in oil for winter use; and recommends, as they are rather tough, to soak them for a night in milk, when they should be gently stewed with other fungi or with meat, or else alone.

We have before stated that the greater number of esculent fungi belong to the tribe Pileati, under which head are classed the divisions Agaricus, Boletus, Hydnum, Polyporus, Fistulina, Cantharellus, and several other genera, all of which furnish more or fewer edible species. Of these, however, we find the most under the head Agaricus, a division which takes its name from Agaria, a kingdom of Sarmatia. Our English word mushroom (by which all kinds of edible fungi are commonly designated) has a French origin, and comes from the word mouceron, "originally," says Badham, "spelled mousseron; and belongs of right to that most dainty of funguses, the Agaricus prunulus, which grows amidst tender herbage and moss, whence its name.' Champignon is also of French derivation; but whilst that name in France is generic, the English make it specific, and restrict it to a single species, the Agaricus oreades, or fairy-ring mushroom. Agaricus prunulus has also a right to the cognomen fairy-ring mushroom, for it, as well as Agaricus oreades, Agaricus orcella, Agaricus Georgii, Agaricus personatus, and our common mushroom, Agaricus campestris, has a share in making those mystic rings which in former days scared many a rural hind and maiden, and caused them to deviate from their direct course in passing through the fields where they were to be seen, lest, if they once

entered that magic boundary, they should come under the power of the fairies, or (as they are called in Devonshire) pixies, and should be by them pixy-led; that is, led off into by-ways, and so into some pathless waste.

We will not here enter into the speculations of botanists on the mode by which these rings are formed; it will be enough to say that it is now generally acknowledged that they are produced by the growth of fungi. The Agaricus prunulus is reproduced in these rings every year about the same time, the circle continuing to enlarge until it breaks up into irregular lines, which is a sure indication that the species is about to disappear from that place; an unbroken ring being a certain promise of a good crop the next year. It is a large fungus, and very abundant; Dr. Badham says he has collected in one field from twenty to twenty-five pounds weight. Professor Balbi writes to Persoon: "This rare and most delicious agaric, the Mouceron of Bulliard, and the Agaricus prunulus of other authors, abounds on the hills above the valley of Stafora, near Bobbio, where it is called Spinaroli, and is in great request. The country-people eat it fresh in a variety of ways, or they dry and sell it for from twelve to sixteen francs a pound." This species is a thick, convex, fleshy mushroom, irregular in shape, of a creamcoloured, or buffish, or grey, or reddish tint, with very numerous white gills, and has the advantage of appearing in spring, when few other edible species are to be procured. In Rome, "it is sent in little baskets as presents to patrons, fees to medical men, and bribes to Roman lawyers." How surprised would our learned functionaries in law or physic be to receive a little basket of what they would probably call "toad-stools," in return for their efforts on behalf of their clients or patients!

The Agaricus Georgii, another of these gregarious ring-forming species, is

one of no small interest; its cap is at first conicocampanulate, and covered with white shreds; but when fully expanded these have all disappeared, and it becomes beautifully white and shining. It grows in pastures and under trees, and some of the individuals attain a most enormous size. Dr. Withering says: "Mr. Stackhouse had repeatedly mentioned to me a large esculent fungus found on the sea-coast in Cornwall, which is, I believe, a

The Hungarians suppose the mushroom, Agaricus Georgii, or, as some authors call it, Agaricus exquisitus, to be a special gift from St. George. It has several trivial names-" the horse mushroom," from its immense size; and "white caps," under which name it is sold for making ketchup. There are SO many other interesting species of mushrooms which invite our attention, that it is difficult to know which of them to select for especial notice. We have named Agaricus oreades and Agaricus personatus as being species which grow in rings. The first of these is a small buff mushroom, its common names being champignon, and Scotch bonnets. It is very common, according to Badham; Hyde Park produces them abundantly in some seasons. He says that in the French d-la-mode beefshops this species of fungus is in great request, and that it imparts a delicious flavour to rich soups and gravies. When dried (as it is the custom of the French and Italians to use them), these champignons may be kept for many years, and their flavour becomes improved by the process. Agaricus personatus is

sold in Covent Garden Market under the name of blewits. It is of a pale bistre, or purple lilac, occasionally violet, the cap from two to six inches broad, and the stem from one to three inches high. It grows in rings or in clusters amongst grass, usually appearing in October. The Agaricus comatus, or "maned agaric," according to Puccinelli, as quoted by Dr. Badham, is "in great repute about Via Reggio and Lucca." It may be found in meadows

monstrous variety of this species. Its whole habit is very large, the button as big as a potato, the expanded pileus eighteen inches over; the stem as big as a man's wrist," etc. He also mentions a specimen found on an old hot-bed, which weighed fourteen pounds. But huge as this fungus must have been, it by no means equals one mentioned by Clusius, in his "History of Plants," which was found in Pannonia. Of this immense specimen (supposed to have been Polyporus frondosus), "after satisfying the cravings of a large mycophilous household, enough remained to fill a chariot!"

and waste places in early spring, and the young specimens are used for making ketchup. It is called the "maned agaric," from its shaggy edge. The cap is fleshy, white and scaly, the lamellæ or gills changing to red-purple and to black, and showing their dark hue through the skin of the cap as it advances in age.

The Agaricus ostreatus is a species of fungus which grows on wood. It may be found on dead trees in spring and autumn. This fungus varies much in size and colour; but where it has once been found, there it is pretty sure to grow for many successive years. It is a pretty fungus, vary. ing in hue; but though occasionally found quite white, it is in general of a ashy-brown with white gills, and has either no stem, or one sublateral.

Another very delicate agaric, Agaricus rubescens, which grows in woods, particularly of oak

or

chestnut, is to be found both in summer and autumn; and Agaricus caudicinus, a beautiful little cinnamon-coloured edible fungus, which grows on trees, and is very much prized in the southern part of Italy, is also worthy of our notice; the elegant little white field agaric, Agaricus virgineus, which abounds in our pastures in autumn, is also a very attractive species. But space does not allow of our naming any others of this tribe, and we can barely hint at the rich store' of food which is offered to us by the other genera of the tribe Pileati.