other name or names the same ship, or the master thereof, is or shall be named or called; beginning the adventure upon the said goods and merchandise, from the loading thereof aboard the said ship and craft in the river Thames upon the said ship, etc. (here follow list of cargo and value of each item), and so shall continue and endure, during her abode there, upon the said ship, with all her ordnance, tackle, apparel, etc., and goods and merchandise whatsoever; until the said ship shall be arrived at Riga, and upon the said ship, etc., and until she hath moored at anchor twenty-four hours in good safety; and upon the goods and merchandise, until the same be there discharged and safely landed. And it shall be lawful for the said ship, etc., in this voyage, to proceed and sail to, and touch and stay at, any ports or places whatsoever, for all purposes, and with liberty to take in and discharge goods at all ports or places she may touch at, without being deemed any deviation, and without prejudice to this assurance. The said ship, etc., goods and merchandise, etc., for so much as concerns the assured, by agreement between the assured and assurers in this policy, are and shall be valued at ... to pay average on each 10 bales of cotton of following numbers or on the whole of each mark and species of goods. Touching the adventures and perils which we the assurers are contented to bear, and do take upon us in this voyage, they are: of the seas, men of war, fire, enemies, pirates, rovers, thieves, jettisons, letters of marque and countermarque, surprisals, takings at sea, arrests, restraints and detainments of all kings, princes, and people, of what nation, condition, or quality soever, barretry of the master and mariners, and of all other perils, losses, and misfortunes that have or shall come to the hurt, detriment, or damage of the said goods and merchandise and ship, etc., or any part thereof. And in case of any loss or misfortune, it shall be lawful to the assured, their factors, servants, and assigns, to sue, labour and travel for, in and about the defence, safeguard, and recovery of the said goods and merchandise and ship, etc., or any part thereof, without prejudice to this insurance; to the charges whereof we the assurers will contribute, each one according to the rate and quantity of his sum herein assured. And it is agreed by us the insurers, that this writing or policy of assurance shall be of as much force and effect as the surest writing or policy of insurance heretofore made in Lombard Street or in the Royal Exchange, or elsewhere in London. And so we the assurers are contented, and do hereby promise and bind ourselves, each one for his own part, our heirs, executors, and goods, to the assured, their executors, administrators, and assigns, for the true performance of the premises, confessing ourselves paid the consideration due unto us for this assurance, by the assured, at and after the rate of ten shillings per cent. In witness whereof, we the assurers have subscribed our names and sums assured in London.

N.B.-Corn, fish, salt, fruit, flour, and seed, are warranted free from average, unless general, or the ship be stranded. Sugar, tobacco, hemp, flax, hides, and skins, are warranted free from average, under five pounds per cent., and all other goods, also the ship and freight, are warranted free of average, under three pounds per cent. unless general, or the ship be stranded.

(Here follow the names of the underwriters with the amounts.)

ce qui est à raison de effectué dans les

(trente)

la

l'arrivée dudit navire à sa destination. En cas de perte du navire ou de la chose assurée, compagnie, etc. .. paiera le montant de l'assurance, 1. prime déduite, au sieur L dans les (trente) jours de la signification de ladite perte. La prime ci-dessus stipulée ne pourra être augmentée ni diminuée, quels que soient les événements de paix ou de guerre qui surviendraient entre la France et les autres puissances pendant la durée dudit voyage. (Les parties se soumettent respectivement, quant à l'exécution de la présente police, à tout ce qui est prescrit par les lois maritimes et le code de commerce, en matière d'assurance; et en cas de contestation elles déclarent s'en rapporter en dernier ressort à la décision de Messieurs S . . L et M qu'elles nomment à cet effet leurs arbitres, et amiables compositeurs, leur donnant tous pouvoirs à ce nécessaire, même celui de choisir un autre arbitre en remplacement de celui d'entre eux qui, le cas de contestation arrivant, ne pourrait ou ne voudrait en connaître.) Fait double à jour, heure, mois et an susdits (Signatures)

1,500 Frs.

57.-BILL OF EXCHANGE.

Je paierai au premier Mars prochain, à l'ordre de M. Nord, quatre mille francs, valeur reçue en une lettre de change qu'il m'a fournie, par lui tirée ce jour sur Messieurs Louis & Mocquard de Lyon, payable au premier Avril.

Fait à Bruxelles, le 20 Juillet 1853.

déclare avoir chargé et qu'il évalue à la somme de la pièce, ce qui fait au total la somme de navire en chargement au port de ledit navire partant du port de

de

pour

où

59.-BILL OF EXCHANGE.

CH. COURTIER,

Lyons, June 25th, 1852. At two usances, pay this first of exchange to the order of Mr. Latour, four thousand francs for value received in cash which place to account.

Bon pour Frs. 4,000.

FRANÇOIS DUPONT. Lyon, le 25 Juin 1852. À deux usances, payez par cette première de change, à l'ordre de M. Latour, quatre mille francs, valeur reçue comptant, que vous passerez suivant l'ordre de

FRANÇOIS DUPONT.

LESSONS IN LAND-SURVEYING.-III.

FIELD-BOOK AND SURVEY OF AN ESTATE.

In our last lesson we explained to the student the construotion and use of that most valuable instrument to the landsurveyor, the theodolite.

In previous portions of this series we pointed out that when certain elements of a triangle are known, the others can be found by calculation; and it may be here stated as a general fact, and one which

N

DARTH

20

(1)

22

in which the ABC = 180°-sum of angles

50 X 99619 34202 =145.63 miles.

We shall close our subject by giving the student a field-book sufficiently extensive and varied to enable him to bring into practice, in plotting out the property surveyed, all the rules he is likely to require, except in the higher branches of our subject, such as town-surveying for drainage, laying out railways and railway curves.

We give some general directions and explanations of the method we have adopted, but we may observe that different surveyors adopt modifications to suit their own ideas. The points to which we are about to call the attention of the student will be all found exemplified in the following field-book, "FieldBook of the Survey of Fortescue Manor Farm," which will be found in the next two pages. In this field-book the reader must be careful to notice that each of the four columns into which the pages are divided, represents a page of the blank book with a double column ruled down the centre, in which all the measurements are noted. It will also be noted, as we have explained before, that it is necessary to commence at the bottom of the page, and proceed upwards in entering the measurements along each line, ruling a double line across the page when each line is completed. The large figures in circles in the field-book refer to the lines on the above plan along which the measurements are made.

lochs, mountains, and ravines, and the numerous islands dispersed around it. How would it be possible with anything like correctness to measure a line from Ben Nevis in the county of Inverness to the Paps of Jura off Argyleshire? And yet these mountains are visible from each other. Suppose, however, another mountain, accessible from either one or the other of these, and visible from both, as, for instance, Ben Cruachan in Argyleshire; now, if the distance between the two accessible points be accurately measured, the theodolite will enable us to ascertain the correct distance between the inaccessible positions.

Let A and B in the annexed diagram represent respectively the

TOL. V.

• The student must refer to his tables of sines.

129

2. Care must be taken in course of measuring a line to note correctly in the field-book every object adjacent to the line, sketching its bearing with respect to it. The nature of the ground passed over, whether orchard, arable, etc., may also with advantage be noted. All buildings must be carefully marked down; also streams, ponds, roads, etc.

3. It is not advisable wholly to depend upon off-sets for the shape of a hedge or fence adjacent to a line, but to draw it as correctly as the eye will indicate. This rule holds good more particularly with respect to crooked boundaries, which may frequently cross the line which is being measured. These points must be carefully noted. We refer the student to line 3 for a good illustration of a boundary crossing the line being measured.

4. It is desirable, whenever any line being measured passes through a station situated upon another line, to sketch down the direction of the line so passed, and to mark what its number is upon the survey. This cannot be too frequently done, as it will be found to render a great assistance in the subsequent operation of plotting.

5. When starting upon the measurement of a fresh line, the starting-point should have placed opposite it in the field-book the direction of the new line to the one it is leaving, as nearly as the eye can do so.

""

If the student looks over the field-book we have just given, he will observe at the commencement of each line something like the following, "From at 100 on 30 This simply means that the line about to be measured and entered in the field-book commences from a station (O) situated at 100 links from the

beginning of line (0) 30, and that you turn to the right () If it had been, it would have implied that you turn to the left; if, or, that you deviated either to the right or the left, but obliquely.

In commencing to "plot" your notes, it is best to discard all matters of detail, such as off-sets, and all notes except the positions of stations (O), until you have laid down your skeleton plan, that is, your measured lines. These will be marked with a finely-pointed pencil, so that when you subsequently fill in your detail, they can be obliterated, and the actual plan of the ground not be interfered with. Care has been taken in the foregoing notes to mark in considerable detail the direction of streams, because these constitute a very valuable adjunct to farming property.

We now leave the subject in the student's hands, feeling sure that if he has followed us carefully through every part of our course, he cannot fail, after a little actual practice upon the ground, to portray accurately upon paper the contour of any ordinary portion of country.

berations. The first, over which the Emperor Constantine presided, decreed the consubstantiality of the Son of God, condemned the Arian heresy, which denied the divinity of Christ, and composed the Nicene Creed; the last, the Council of Trent, lasted eighteen years, and settled many points of doctrine as necessary to salvation. It decided with anathemas what books of the Holy Scripture were to be received as canonical, and decreed that the Church was the sole interpreter of Scripture. What traditions of the Church were to be received as equal in authority to the Scriptures were also marked out; the rites of baptism, confirmation, holy communion, penance, extreme unction, orders, and matrimony, were established as sacraments; and the doctrines connected with transubstantiation, purgatory, indulgences, celibacy of the clergy, and auricular confession were authoritatively laid down.

With the points thus settled, the Church was satisfied, or appeared to be so, until the present time, when the Papal Court thought fit to summon an assembly of bishops to decide the various questions which had been mooted among Roman Catholics for many years past. The councils so assembled were called Ecumenical or General Councils, and their decrees were of universal application; but there were besides smaller assemblies for the judgment of local disputes in the Church, and presided over by the archbishop or bishop of the province. These assemblies were called Provincial Councils or Synods; their decrees were binding only upon the ecclesiastical subjects of the province, and were, of course, liable to reversion upon appeal to a general council of the whole Church. They met in the spring and autumn of each year, upon the summons of the archbishop of the province, and settled all points both of faith and discipline. The primates of Rome, Alexandria, Antioch, Carthage, and afterwards Constantinople, exercised this sway over their dioceses, and their example was afterwards followed by the archbishops who were their suffragans. But the general councils-councils, that is, like the council now sitting in Rome-were summoned only by the emperor himself. "Whenever the emergencies of the Church required this decisive measure, he dispatched a peremptory summons to the bishops or the deputies of each province, with an order for the use of post-horses, and a competent allowance for the expenses of their journey." The fathers assembled, and the emperor was wont, while nominally presiding, to content himself with a lowly place

in the midst of the assembly, and to leave the deliberations of the council free, even to the extent of frequently not attending by our Lord to the apostles, and upon what may be termed the at all. A belief sprang up, founded upon the assurances made probabilities of the case, to the effect that so liberal an effusion of the Holy Ghost was made upon the members of the council, that collectively they were infallible, and, therefore, that their decrees were to be received as the utterances and commands of God himself. This idea of infallibility was carried to its extreme point upon more than one occasion, the pope himself being made not only subject to the council, but in one memorable instance, that of John XXIII., actually deposed by it. The popes were, of course, at all times anxious to be saved from such friends, and were ever on the watch to play them some evil turn which should reduce them to the position in which the fathers of the present council stand to the Pope-a position of dependence and utter subjection. The councils, however, were equally on the alert to countermine any such attempts; and when Pope Eugenius IV., in 1431, tried to assume control over the Council of Basle, and the right to dissolve it, the members took the sharpest of means with him, and anticipated his bull by a decree, in which they affirmed that the representatives of the Church militant on earth were invested with a divine and spiritual jurisdiction over all Christians, without excepting the Pope; and that a general council could not be dissolved, prorogued, or transferred, except on its own free deliberation and consent. Following up this boldness of speech by boldness of action, they gave the Pope sixty days to repent of his folly, promising, unless he withdrew his offensive pretensions, they would suspend him from the exercise of his spiritual and temporal functions. Eugenius recanted, and with his own hand rescinded the bull he intended to fulminate against the council. Gradually, with the patience which belongs to an institution that considers itself eternal, the Roman churchmen arrogated to themselves a power over the lay prince who was their con