POPULAR EDUCATOR. LESSONS IN ETHNOLOGY.—I. INTRODUCTION-TRANSMISSION OF QUALITIES, ETC. THE term Ethnology is derived from two Greek words, vos (eth-nos), a body of men, a nation, caste, or race; and Aóyos (log-os), a word, discourse, etc. It is the science which treats of the races of mankind. It was formerly called Ethnography, the second part of this word being taken from ypápw (graph-o), I engrave, I write. Ethnography then was a writing about, or a description of, the races of the world. As, however, inquiries on this subject have of late taken a wider range, and assumed a more scientific aspect-it being held needful now not merely to describe the characteristics of a race, but also to attempt to discover how those characteristics arose-Ethnology, the latter part of which is derived from the same root as the word logic, has become the more appropriate term. A cognate science is Anthropology, and it is necessary to distinguish between the two. According to Dr. Latham, anthropology specially investigates the relation in which man stands to the inferior animals; but this is too limited a view. For what is the etymological construction of the word anthropology? It is made up of áveρwos (an-thro-pos), man, and λóyos, meaning (as already explained) discourse. Anthropology, then, is a discourse about man, and its cultivators profess "to study man in all his leading aspects, physical, mental, and historical, to investigate the laws of his origin and progress, to ascertain his place in nature, and his relation to the inferior forms of life." Such, at least, is the comprehensive programme of the Anthropological Society of London, which, though founded so recently as 1863, has already to no slight extent battled its way into public notice. Ethnology would, then, be one department of the great science of anthropology, and this we deem the correct view. Having now traced out the limits of the field, it is needful next to enter on its exploration. No two members of the same family come into the world in all respects alike, and the original differences grow more, instead of less manifest, as the young people advance to maturity. When at length they go forth to push their way in the world, perhaps one enters the Church, another the army, and a third the navy; while a fourth goes out to India, returning home only in the evening of his days. To the original differences have now been superadded others resulting from diversity of climate, food, habitation, profession, and mental and moral habits. The modifications of colour and general appearance produced by the tropical climate on that member of the family who spent the best years of his life in India will be specially apparent. Every one knows that, in all likelihood, he will be darker than his compeers. As colour is one of the points on which the various races of men depart widely from each other, it should be noted how great are the alterations in this respect which can be effected by ordinary influences, even within the first generation. A traveller, speak ing from observation, says that a European acquires a tawny skin by residing for some time in Egypt, and a bronzed one by living in Abyssinia; he becomes pallid on the Arabian coast, of an unhealthy white in Syria, clear brown in the deserts of Arabia, and ruddy in the Syrian mountains. Nay, more, his hair becomes darker, acquires a softer texture, and shows a tendency to curl. It will be perceived that the changes in the colour and in the texture of the hair constitute an approach, however faint, to a race of mankind more remote than any other from the European. A second and important question now arises. Are slight differences of organisation among members of a family, either appearing by some occult law at birth, or produced at a subsequent period by various natural causes, transmitted from one VOL. VI. generation to another? The answer must be that they are so, though not uniformly, yet at least occasionally. In various works, among which we would instance one-Dr. Theodor Waitz's excellent "Introduction to Anthropology," edited in English by J. F. Collingwood, Esq., Hon. Secretary of the Anthropological Society-much important evidence is adduced with regard to the descent of natural or acquired peculiarities to the second, if not to remoter generations. For instance, an officer whose little finger had accidentally been cut across, and had in consequence become crooked, transmitted the same defect to his offspring. Another officer, wounded at the battle of Eylau, had his scar reproduced on the foreheads of his children. When the newborn infants of Europeans are compared with those of savage nations, the shape of the toes in the former is found to have been modified by the fact that their parents were in the habit of wearing shoes. It has often been observed that the Hapsburg, or Austrian royal family, for some generations back, have had a thick upper lip, which first appeared after an ancestor of theirs had intermarried with the Polish family of Jagellon. A gentleman communicates the information that he has himself witnessed a single white lock of hair in two successive generations of a family, which family moreover bore a surname that may possibly have been first suggested by the phenomenon now described. Observations analogous to those which have just been recorded have been made also in the case of the lower animals. We have space for only two. In Carolina, a dog which had accidentally lost its tail transmitted the defect to its descendants for three or four generations. A sheep in Massachusetts, with a long body and short legs, in 1791 became the progenitor of an apparently permanent breed, possessing the same characteristics. This now occurs in various parts of North America, is called the otter sheep, and is prized by farmers, as its short limbs prevent its being able to leap over the fences. It is thus abundantly evident that physical peculiarities are transmissible both in the case of man and of the lower animals. So are instincts, temper, etc., in animals, and mental and moral qualities in man. A vicious horse generally breeds another of the same kind; a docile one similarly repeats itself. Children among ourselves generally take after their parents. True, numerous instances have cccurred in which a wise man has begotten a fool, or the son of a poet has been prosaic to the last degree, or the first-born of an eminent naturalist has cared nothing for his distinguished father's pursuits. But it is not by any means always so; witness, for example, the Hookers, father and son, both of the highest eminence in botany. The two sets of facts may be harmonised by remembering that the sons who departed so widely from their fathers' mental characteristics, may in this respect have closely resembled their mothers. In many cases the intellect of an able man is inherited from his mother, so much so, that, as has been pointed out, the popular phrase is not father- but mother-wit. is, then, nothing in what has now been stated to overthrow the observation that mental and moral qualities can be transmitted from parents to children. Nay, more; when mothers have had to pass through scenes of terror-like some of those which arose in connection with the first French revolution-the fright in which they have been has in some cases told on the intellect of any children to whom they may have shortly afterwards given birth; thus new mental types may be created by passing event. So, also, training laboriously imparted to dogs, tends to become to them a second nature, and more or less to modify the instincts of their offspring; there being in this, as in similar cases, a certain analogy between man and the inferior animals. With such a law of variability operating during thousands of years, it was inevitable that diverse races should 131 There PLANE TRIGONOMETRY.-I. giacevamo, giaceváte, giacóvano.-Ind. Pret. Giácqui, giacésti, giácque; giacémmo, giacéste, giácquero.-Fut. Giacerò, giacerái, giacerà; giacerémo, giaceréte, giaceránno.-Cond. Pres. Giaceréi, giacerésti, giace- INTRODUCTION-CIRCULAR MEASURE OF ANGLES-FUNCTIONS rébbe; giacerémmo, giaceréste, giacerébbero. IMP. Giáci, giáccia or giácia; giacciámo or giaciámo, giacéte, giácciano or giáciano. SUB. Pres. Che giaccia or giácia; che giáccia, giácia, giácci, giáci; che giaccia or giácia. Che giacciamo or giaciámo; che giacciáte or giaciate; cho giacciano or giáciano.-Imp. Che giacéssi, che giacéssi, che giacésse; che giacéssimo, che giacéste, che giacéssero. KEY TO EXERCISES IN LESSONS IN ITALIAN.-XXXII. 1. Mr. N. has invited me to dinner; I think you will find there a large party. 2. Will you go out on horseback to-day? 3. My sisters will soon arrive. 4. Peter will return to you all that he has taken. 5. Why did you not return my salutation? 6. Once we shall render an account of our actions. 7. I will answer your letter on the ninth of this month. 8. When will you leave off? 9. I should have finished already if you had not hindered me. 10. Leave off, then. 11. I shall inform your father of your negligence. 12. I would eat a fig if I did not fear the toothache. 13. I would not sell my meerschaum pipe if circumstances did not oblige me. 14. If you really loved the Italian language, you would study it with more diligence. 15. I (should) wish that you would finish the work which you have begun. 16. John brings plums, pears, and apples. 17. This watch does not go well; send it to the watchmaker that he may repair it. 18. Do not open the windows. EXERCISE 42. 2. Not 1. Returning to the house, I have found your brother. speaking Italian, you must feel yourself annoyed here. 3. Not knowing where to find her, I have returned. 4. I am loved by my school-fellows; thou art praised by the master. 5. Frederick is punished. 6. Good children are loved by their parents. 7. The poor man is forsaken by all the world. 8. Honour thy father and thy mother, and thou shalt be honoured. 9. This book shall be bound to-morrow. 10. Be virtuous, and you shall certainly be rewarded for it. 11. The bad will one day be punished. 12. Harriet would be praised by her masters if she were more diligent. 13. We were well treated by our aunt. 14. John has been punished for not having finished his exercise. 15. Speak loud, that you may be heard. 16. It is sad to be hated by all. 17. He feels pleasure in being praised. 18. We have gathered many strawberries. 19. The strawberries which we have gathered are delicious. 20. The figure which my brother has drawn was very beautiful. 21. Have you sent my books to the bookbinder? 22. Yes; I have sent them to him yesterday. EXERCISE 43. 1. Our neighbour pretends to understand everything that we say. OF ANGLES-RELATIONS OF TRIGONOMETRICAL RATIOS TRIGONOMETRY is derived from two Greek words, Tρrywvov (tri- Trigonometry is divided into Plane and Spherical Trigonometry, the latter of which treats of triangles drawn upon spherical surfaces, and is comparatively special in its application. We are at present only concerned with Plane Trigonometry. It is presumed that the learner is acquainted with the ordinary or sexagesimal method of measuring angles, according to which the circumference of every circle is considered as divided into 360 equal parts, called degrees, each degree being divided into 60 minutes, and each minute into 60 seconds, the signs for which are respectively °' ". The fourth part of the circumference, or 90°, is called a quadrant, and subtends a right angle at the centre. A right angle is thus described as 90°, and every angle is measured by the number of degrees, minutes, and seconds in the arc or portion of the circumference which subtends or lies opposite to it. I. Circular Measure of Angles.-Trigonometry, it has been before observed, is, in its primary signification, the science which deals with the relations existing between the sides and angles of triangles. But to enable us to deal freely with such utterly dissimilar expressions as lines and angles in combination with each other, it is necessary to bring them-to speak figu 2. My uncle will arrive this evening; we shall amuse ourselves well. 3. Why do you grieve? 4. I grieve for the death of my cousin. 5. Rejoice, friends, in the little which you have. 6. Do not rely on him.ratively-"to the same denomination;" and a system called 7. Remember your promise. 8. Wrap yourself with your cloak. 9. I shall make use of your books. 10. They make use of mine. 11. We often make use of this carriage. 12. I dress myself. 13. Dress yourself also. 14. We shall dress ourselves by-and-by. 15. Francis, will you not wash yourself yet? 16. I will wash myself this instant. 17. At what hour do you usually rise? 18. I rise every morning at six, and I go to bed at nine. 19. Charles will rise to-morrow at four; he will set out for Cronstadt. 20. We rise later than you. 21. Formerly we did not rise so late. 22. Rest yourself a little. 23. I will rest myself a moment; I am very tired. 24. What is this young man's name? 25. I believe his name is William. 26. These gentlemen are much amused at the ball. 27. They intend to go there next week also. EXERCISE 44. 10. 1. They say that Mrs. Johnson will get married. 2. The bird is known by its song. 3. One eats and drinks well in this hotel. 4. People know their friends in misfortunes. 5. One most always seeks a fortune where it is not. 6. They speak fifty-three languages in Europe. 7. Have you heard what is reported of a boy in New York? 8. It is no longer spoken of. 9. It was spoken of long since. What must be done to prevent such a misfortune? 11. It is necessary always to labour; it is not necessary to be idle. 12. It will be needful to have patience. 13. What are you doing? 14. I must write. 15. It was necessary that I should write a letter. 16. Will you accompany me? 17. I am going. 18. Are you going already? 19. It is necessary for me to go. 20. Your mother is not going yet. 21. Excuse me, my mother is already gone, and my brothers will go directly. 22. Wait a moment longer; we will go together. 23. Let us go, gentlemen. 24. If I had come a little later, I should have come with your sisters. 25. Were you in church? 26. Yes; I have this moment come out of it. circular measure has been devised, by which any angle may be To express any other angle, A C B, in terms Fig. 1. B A (1) That is to say, the size or value of an angle may be expressed in circular measure by the ratio subsisting between the arc and the radius, or more specifically by dividing the are by the radius. We have thus found means to express the size of an angle by the relation between the length of two lines. By a calculation based upon the more abstruse results of the science, it has been ascertained approximately that the circumference of a circle the diameter x 3.14159. This number occurs so frequently, that it is the custom to represent it by a = |