are fragments of the rocks of Cumberland and Westmoreland. Perhaps the largest transported block is above the Devil's Glen, in County Wicklow, Ireland. It is of granite, twenty-seven feet long, fifteen feet broad, and eleven feet high. It is perched 650 feet above the sea, and is ten miles from the nearest granite. Now, how could any deluge place that boulder there? A rushing current might have rolled it along its bed, but never could have lifted it up a hill-side. Numerous instances of a similar kind might be cited, but our space forbids it. There is still one fact to add to the three above alluded to, before we draw to a conclusion. The true fossils of the boulder clay are all Arctic species; among them are Astarte borealis (Fig. 160), Saxicava rugosa (Fig. 161), Pecten islandicus (Fig. 162), Natica clausa (Fig. 163), Trophon clathratum (Fig. 164), Leda oblonga (Fig. 165). Finding these species now existing on the ice-bound shores of northern latitudes, we naturally conclude that during the depositions of the drift, during the scratchings of the rocks, and during the transportation of the erratic blocks or boulders, the Arctic climate must have extended further south than it now does, even to a latitude of fifty degrees. We ought to say that the above phenomena are observed at the south pole, reaching to the same latitude. We turn to the agency of ice to explain what we have observed. We know that glaciers are always found on snow-clad mountains, because if there were no outlet for the frozen vapour which caps the heights with their eternal snows, the frozen water would accumulate continually until the mountains reached a stupendous height, and at last would overbalance and cause tremendous catastrophes. But as it is, when ice accumulates in large quantities it acquires the power of "flowing" precisely like water, only much slower. This motion is termed "viscous motion." The ice forming continually above the snow-line, descends down the mountain valleys in an ice-river or glacier, filling the valley exactly as if it were a river of water, contracting as it passes a gorge, and expanding again as it enters the open valley. None save those who have crossed a glacier can form any idea of the vast mass of ice of which it is composed, or of the enormous pressure it exercises against the sides of the valley. Its motion is about 400 feet a year; and the end of the glacier is that point where the ice is melted by the sun in the warm valley. As it scrapes along the sides of the hills, it not only scratches and polishes the rocks, producing precisely the same appearances as those which are found on our rocks, but also it gathers on its edges earth, stones, and rock, which fall upon it as it grates the valley-sides. This accumulation of debris is termed moraine. This the glacier carries down to the place where the sun melts it, and there it deposits its load, forming exactly the same accumulation as is found in the drift. In the Arctic regions the glacier continues its motion until it reaches the sea; for the snow-line is there at the level of the sea. Huge blocks of ice fall over the sea-cliffs into the water beneath, and become icebergs; and attached to them are huge stones, as well as portions of the moraine. The ocean currents bear them southwards, and in warmer latitudes they gradually melt, dropping the stones and gravel upon the ocean floor. This must have been the way in which the erratic blocks were placed in their present positions. Professor Ramsay, who has carefully studied the Welsh territory, has come to the conclusion that the land previous to the Post-pliocene, or at its commencement, was more elevated than it is now, and the climate intensely cold. All the highlands would then give rise to glaciers. A submergence then commenced, and all passed down below the sea-level; then a re-elevation set in, and brought the land above the water, and new glaciers formed. He estimates the probable maximum submergence at about 2,300 feet. There is a deposit of drift near the summit of Moel Tryfaen, a mountain in North Wales, 1,360 feet above the sea. puts beyond a doubt that there was a submergence to that extent at least. This It is difficult to imagine such a state of things so totally different to that which exists at the present day; but we must remember that the years which measured the Glacial epoch must have been untold, and the motion so slow and gradual as not to disturb the underlying strata. As to the cold, there are astronomical considerations, into which we cannot enter here, which, if they do not as yet account for such a change of climate, at least point the direction in which an explanation may be found. CHARACTERISTIC FOSSILS OF THE CORALLINE CRAG. Foraminifera.-Biloculina bulloides; Globulina gibba; Orbitolites complanatus; Textularia aciculata; Triloculina oblonga. Zoophyta.-Cryptangia Woodii; Flabellum Woodii. Polyzoa.-Cellaria fistulosa; Cellepora cellulosa; Eschara foliacea; Flustra coriacea, membranacea; Membranipora dentata; Tubulipora agaricia, arborea. Brachiopoda.-- Discina (Orbicula) lamellosa; Lingula Dumortieri; Terebratulina caput-serpentis. Conchifera.-Avicula Tarentina; Lima hians; Pecten princeps; Astarte gracilis, incerta, parvula, Omalii; Cardium decorticatum; Cryptodon ferruginosum; Cytherea chione; Leda pygmæa; Lucina crenulata; Modiola phaseolina; Mytilus Hesperianus; Nucula trigonula; Pholadomya hesterna; Tellina balaustina; Teredo navalis. Gasteropoda.-Acteon levidensis; Bulla acuminata, truncata; Cerithium adversum; Cypræa affinis; Fusus gracilior; Helix nemoralis; Pleurotoma brachystoma, concinnata; Scalaria cancellata, fimbriosa; Terebra canalis, inversa; Turritella planispira; Velutina virgata. Echinodermata.-Echinocyamus hispidulus; Echinus Lyellii," Woodwardi; Spatangus purpureus; Temnechinus globosus; Uraster rubens. Cirripedia.-Balanus bisulcatus. Crustacea.-Cancer pagurus; Pagurus Bernhardus. CHARACTERISTIC FOSSILS OF THE RED CRAG. Foraminifera.-Cristellaria rotulata; Globigerina cretacea; Polymor phina communis. Polyzoa.-Flustra distans; Lepralia abstersa. Zoophyta.-Balanophyllia calyculus. Conchifera.-Pecten gracilis; Astarte crebrilirata, obliquata; Cardium angustatum, venustum; Corbula complanata; Modiola barbata; Solen cultellatus; Tellina Benedenii. Gasteropoda.-Conovulus myosotis; Cypræa Anglie; Fusus altus; Hydrobia pendula; Natica hemiclausa; Patella vulgata; Pleurotoma Boothii, intorta; Purpura tetragona; Trochus cinerarius, multigranus. Echinodermata.-Echinocyamus pusillus; Echinus Henslovii; TemneAnnelida.-Vermicularia triquetra. chinus turbinatus. CHARACTERISTIC FOSSILS OF THE MAMMALIFEROUS CRAG. Conchifera.-Astarte borealis, elliptica; Cardita analis; Cyrena consobrina; Donax anatinus; Leda pernula; Modiola discors; Mytilus antiquorum; Psammobia solidula; Tellina fabula. Gasteropoda.-Helix arbustorum; Hydrobia subumbilicata; Limnæa palustris; Margarita elegantissima; Natica occlusa; Paludina lenta; Planorbis corneus. Mammalia.-Elephas primigenius; Lutra vulgaris; Mastodon angustidens; Asinus; Sus. The following species have been found in caverns only:Birds.-Alauda arvensis; Anas sponsor; Columba species; Corvus corax; Perdix cinerea. Mammals.-Asinus fossilis; Bison minor; Canis familiaris, lupus; Cervus Bucklandi; Equus plicidens; Lepus cuniculus; Mus musculus; Ursus priscus; Vulpes vulgaris. The following fossils have been found in Pleistocene deposits, and not in caverns :— Mammalia. - Bison priscus; Bos longifrons, primigenius; Cervus Brachiopoda.-Terebratula psittacea. Conchifera.- Anomia ephippium; Ostræa edulis; Pecten islandicus, sinuosus; Astarte Damnoniensis; Cardium edule; Leda minuta, rostrata; Mactra truncata; Mytilus vulgaris; Nucula proxima; Saxicava sulcata; Tellina baltica, Greenlandica; Venus decussata. Gasteropoda.-Buccinum ciliatum; Fusus Bamfius, despectus; Littorina littorea, palliata; Margarita undulata; Nassa pliocena; Natica Alderi; Patella lævis; Pleurotoma discrepans; Turritella terebra. Annelida.-Serpula vermicularis; Vermilia triquetra. Cirripedia.-Balanus communis. Mammalia.- Balæna mysticetus; Monodon monoceras; Phocæna crassidens. LESSONS IN SPANISH.-XX. THE VERB. THE TENSES OF THE INDICATIVE MOOD (continued). As both the imperfect and perfect definite in Spanish are included in English in what is called the imperfect tense, it is important that the learner should be able to distinguish the use of each in Spanish. When an action or event is entirely past and finished, the perfect definite is used; but when it is meant to say that the action or event was taking place at a certain time, and that it is or may be still continued, the imperfect must be used. Thus, "los soldados marchaban por la ciudad means the soldiers were marching through the city, and so far as the word marchaban is concerned, they may be marching still; but "los soldados marcharon por la ciudad means the soldiers marched through the city, and from the tense employed are marching no longer. The perfect indefinite is used to express an action or event, which, though entirely past, has taken place during a period of time (expressed or understood) of which the present forms a part, or at a time designated in an indeterminate manner; asHe hablado á Rodrigo esta I have spoken to Roderick this semana, week. The past actions of persons or things still in existence, if no particular time be mentioned, are expressed in this tense; as— El general ha tomado varias The general has taken several ciudades, cities. The only cases in which the English perfect tense and the Spanish perfect indefinite do not correspond are such as the following: "It has been snowing these three hours; "he has been in Mexico for these ten years; " which in Spanish would be, "hace tres horas que nieva; hace diez años que estoy en Méjico; which mean literally, it is three hours that (since) it snows; it is ten years that (since) I am in Mexico. If the sentence be negative, the perfect indefinite is employed; as, hace ocho dias que no la hemos visto, it is eight days that we have not seen her, that is, we have not seen her for eight days. If the action or event be completed, the perfect definite must be used; as, hace diez años que el rey le perdonó, it is ten years that (since) the king pardoned him. Hay (or ha) is sometimes used instead of hace in cases like the examples in the last paragraph; as, hay pocos dias que entré en el cuarto de mi amigo, it has few days that (since) I entered into the room of my friend, that is, a few days ago I entered my friend's room. Hay is used at the beginning and ha at the end of a phrase; as, hay pocos dias, or pocos dias ha. The first pluperfect is used to express an affirmation of what is past and took place before some other past action or event or time, expressed or understood; as Juan ya había comido cuando John already had dined when llegó Ricardo, Richard arrived. Whenever the former action or event is mentioned as still continuing when the latter occurred, the imperfect tense is employed in Spanish to denote the former; as— Había tres horas que ella estaba It was three hours that she was pintando cuando llegó Pedro, painting when Peter arrived. This last example means in English, she had been painting three hours when Peter arrived. The second pluperfect is used to express a past action or event that took place immediately before another action or event also past. It is never used except after some of the adverbs of time; cuando, when; así que, as soon as ; no bien, no sooner, but just; apénas, scarcely; luego que, immediately after; despues que, soon after; asApénas hubo salido cuando se Scarcely had he gone out, when cayó la casa, the house fell. The first future tense affirms what is yet to be or to take place at a future time (mentioned or not); asSeré presidente, I shall be presi- Lucia vendrá mañana, Lucy will dent. come to-morrow. The second future tense affirms something future that will have taken place before or at the time of some other future action or event, or determinate time; as Habré escrito esta carta ántes Habrá acabado á las tres, he will que Juan llegue, I shall have written have finished at three o'clock. his letter before John may arrive. The imperative mood is not used in the first person singular; nor is it used in Spanish for forbidding, that is, it is not em ployed with a negative adverb, but the persons of the present subjunctive are used when a negative command or a prohibition is expressed; asNo temas, fear not (i.e., mayest No temais, fear not (ie., may ye thou not fear). not fear). The s of the first person plural and the d of the second are suppressed before nos and os; asCongratulémonos, let us congra- Congratuláos, congratulate yourlate ourselves. selves. The persons of the imperative, except the second persons singular and plural, are to be rendered into English by may or let; as, bendiganos el Señor, may the Lord bless us; vaya Juan, let John go. But vmd., with its objective cases, although of the third person, is to be rendered as the second person; as, venga vmd. conmigo, come with me (let your worship come with me); alabese vmd., praise yourself (let your worship praise himself).* THE TENSES OF THE SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. The tenses of the subjunctive mood differ in signification from those of the indicative only in expressing what they affirm in a conditional or doubtful manner, while the tenses of the indicative express certainty. Whenever, therefore, there is no doubt about what we affirm, we must use the tenses of the indicative. The present tense of the subjunctive affirms some doubtful action or event that may take place, and is generally preceded by some conjunction or conjunctive phrase; asHacéd esto para que vean vues- Do this in order that they may see tras buenas obras, your good works. As futurity is implied in the present tense of the subjunctive, the first future of the subjunctive may be used in its place; thus we may say, aunque lloremos, though we may weep; or aunque lloraremos, though we should weep. The present may therefore be used instead of the future, and the future instead of the present, unless the conjunction si (if) be employed, in which case the present subjunctive cannot be used. The relative pronouns are generally followed by the present or some other tense of the subjunctive, when the sentence is interrogative or negative, or expresses a doubt, wish, or condi tion; as No conozco una sola muger, cuya alma sea mas sensible que la de la Señora Loader, I know not a single woman whose soul (is) may be more sensible than that of Mrs. Loader. Words which in English are compounds of ever-such as quien quiera, whoever; cualquiera, whosoever, whichsoever; siempre que, whenever; por mas que, however; por mucho que, what ever-in Spanish generally require the present or some of the tenses of the subjunctive; as Por grande que sea tu mérito, However great that thy merit may bc. The imperfect tense of the subjunctive affirms an action or event of a doubtful or contingent kind as having to be, or to be done, or as conceived by the mind as having taken place at some time under certain conditions; asJuan leería, si tuviera libro, or Juan leería, si tuviese libros, John would read, if he should have (if he had) books. In both Spanish and English the future is sometimes used as a command; as, no matarás, thou shalt not kill, i.e., do not kill, or do commit murder. The form ending with ría is employed (generally to express a wish or condition, or what would be or might be done) when no conditional conjunction comes immediately before the imperfect tense; as ¿Cual de los dos preferiría vmd.? Si ella viniese, irian, if she which of the two would you prefer? should come, they would go. This form can likewise be used when the imperfect is preceded by a verb that expresses belief, trust, or promise; and also when the conjunction si (if) is used in the sense of whether; as— Prometió que me daría dos Le preguntó si su hijo iría allá, libros, he promised that he would he asked him if (whether) his son give me two books. would go there. The form of the imperfect ending with ra may in general be used for either the form in se or that in ría; and is especially to be preferred to the form in ría, when interrogative pronouns come before the imperfect; as It will be seen from the foregoing rules that the form in ra can generally be used instead of the forms in se and ría, for we can say, si yo amara, or si yo amase, if I should love; and we can say, el amara, or el amaría, he would love. But we cannot use the form in ría and that in se, the one for the other. Sometimes the English auxiliaries, could, might, should, and would, are expressed in Spanish by a separate verb, followed by the infinitive; as- No podía ver, he could not see (was not able to see). No quería entrar, he would not enter (was not willing to enter). The perfect indefinite tense of the subjunctive mentions a doubtful or contingent action or event as being completed, or that it would have been done in past time under certain conditions; as- Poco me importa que lo haya oido decir ó no, HISTORIC It concerns me little whether he may have heard it spoken or not. SKETCHES.—LIV. ANCIENT GREECE: ITS RISE. ONE of the most popular, if not one of the greatest orators of the present day described a nation which has governed itself for years; which is as free as it is possible to form any conception of freedom; which has adopted a system of government reflecting readily and clearly the popular will, many-coloured though it is; and which, though a collection of states sometimes opposed to one another and often differing, is cohesive and powerful this nation he described as the greatest in the world, and insisted that it was worthy of our admiration and respect. Mr. Bright was the orator and America the country. In these days of civilisation and knowledge, when we have the experience of years and of nations to assist us, we look to self government as the highest aim of a nation. We are often told to regard that nation, which really governs itself in the freest and most republican manner, as our model; and we feel instinctively the truth of the lesson-that the nation which governs itself well and wisely without the aid of tyrants, despots, or monarchs, however limited, has attained a higher position in the world than that which is compelled to rely on such aid. This was the secret of the greatness of Ancient Greece. In some things, truly, the world does not seem to grow older. Our wisest steps are often those which we are compelled to retrace and take in the direction of ancient history. There the statesman finds the height of his ambition carried out; the painter, the execution of his loftiest dreams; and the soldier, a strategy upon which he has never known how to improve. The present Bishop of Exeter, in a very well-known paper, which has attracted a spurious and an accidental notoriety, endeavoured to show that man was ever rising higher in life; that each age supplied the next with a better and more advantageous standpoint than that which preceded it; that man improved in knowledge and in power in every generation by a sort of arithmetical progression; and that each age was started on its course, not only with the advantage of its own intelligence or mother-wit, but with the accumulated treasures of preceding generations. This theory is good, and would be beautiful, if it were true. That man ought to be colossal in the present day is undoubtedly true; but that he is not, is also beyond even the shadow of a doubt. So far as history is authentic and throws any real meaning on the word "world," it shows us, in the clearest and most convincing manner, that the world has consisted chiefly of a succession of nations which have risen, grown powerful, and fallen; that these successive nations, instead of profiting by each other's experience, have preferred to have their own; and that while in many material points the world has grown richer, in real intellect it has hardly grown wiser. Looking upon nations by the light of real history, we see the same marks which apply to men-they have their childhood, manhood, and decay. The previous experience of others tells for little in a man's life, unless he has made that experience his own. The same faults are repeated generation after generation, in spite of warnings, and in spite of experiences, which are not unknown from any want of prominence. And here we come to a point which is too often forgotten by the student of history; namely, that the study of history is the study of men-of real, living men, who, at all periods of the world's life, were imbued with the same hopes, fears, wishes, and feelings as himself. He is not studying in history abstract problems like those of Euclid; nor is he reading, as so often seems the case, a series of incidents arranged chronologically and logically for his edification or interest; but he is learning what men and women thought and did. and it is only when he thoroughly realises that it is the lives of men and women and not of shadows he must endeavour to penetrate, that he will ever thoroughly understand what history means and what its value is. Laws, cities, buildings, statistics of all kinds, valuable as they are, are still of only minor importance when compared with what men and women have done, said, or suffered in any period of history. Keeping this principle in view, we will now try and see what Ancient Greece was like, and what acts led to its rise as one of the greatest kingdoms the world has ever known. Before the birth of Abraham it is supposed that settlers found their way into Greece. How they found their way there it is difficult to imagine; for Greece was then, as it is now, a fragmentary country broken by mountains and water, and was apparently, as it seems on the map, one of the fag-ends of the earth. It was shut out on the north by mountains from Macedonia, and was bounded on all other sides by water-the Mediterranean, Egean, and Ionian seas washing its shores. It is everything in this world to be well placed; indeed, it is half the battle of life. This advantage had Greece. Its position was most favourable for communication with all parts of the globe. It was close to Italy; the journey to Egypt was neither long nor difficult; and it was not far from Asia Minor and the Phoenician country. The first inhabitants were not aware of their happy situation; but they were not slow in finding it out Two great divisions of the country were marked out naturally by the Saronic and Corinthian gulfs, which separated Hellas, or Northern Greece, from Peloponnesus, or Southern Greece. Hellas I was again separated into two parts-Thessaly and Epirus-by a range of mountains, which cut through it obliquely. Thessaly was the most cultivated of the Grecian provinces, and was enclosed by mountains on all sides but one, which looked out on the Egean Sea. Epirus was less fertile, and traversed by mountains. These divisions of Hellas were split up into subdivisions, each of which left its mark in history. The southern part of Greece was the Peloponnesus. Through the centre runs a long range of mountains, from which hills branch out on each side, giving it, on the map, the appearance of a leaf. Its modern name "Morea was got from the circumstance that the white mulberry grows there in great abundance. The principal city, Arcadia, has given to Europe one of its household words. Situated amongst these mountains, it is Swiss in its appearance, and its inhabitants are, like the Swiss, fond of freedom and money. The word "Arcadian" expresses the severest simplicity, and Arcadia, from the earliest times, was the dwelling-place of men who preferred a pastoral to a town life, and was remarkable for having retained this character longer than any of the neighbouring provinces. This ancient country, then, limited by nature to a small span on the globe's surface, was destined, in the course of time, to give laws to the world, and to be the centre of its life and action. It is natural that we should wish to know who were the first inhabitants of this remarkable country. From the scanty records, or rather tales, which can be referred to in any way, it seems that some people, probably from the East, wandered into the southern part of Greece, and took possession of Arcadia. They were called the Pelasgi. Other tribes wandered also into this part of the world, and gradually peopled the northern part of Greece, or Hellas. From these immigrants small kingdoms were founded, such as Athens and Sparta. But a large and important tribe called the Hellenes came from Asia, and drove the original settlers out of the country. It would be useless to name any of the supposed rulers of this country at this period, and specify any of their deeds. Their history is so fabulous, that it is impossible to relate any facts which are trustworthy, or which would not have to be explained away. But it is well known that either the rugged nature of the country or the fierce character of the inhabitants gave rise to constant war and battles; the most famous was the Trojan war, which took place, it is said, about 1,200 years before Christ. To obtain something like a definite idea of the dates of remarkable events in Grecian history, it will be well occasionally to refer to contemporary events in Sacred history. The conclusion of the Trojan war deprived many of the small kingdoms of Greece of their princes, and produced great confusion. This was about the time when Saul was made king of Israel. Several tribes, to escape the perpetual state of warfare which existed, took refuge in Asia Minor. Athens and other parts of Greece formed themselves into republics, in which state they continued for nearly 400 years-that is, till the time when Greece showed its real power in the world. At present we are only occupied with its rise; it will be necessary, therefore, to find out what were the events of this period, which begins with the Trojan war and ends with the time of Lycurgus. In tracing this history, we seem to be standing at the head of some mighty river. It is at first a small stream, pure and powerless; but as we follow it in its progress, we see it grow in power until, in passionate opposition to the obstacles which lie in its path, it becomes divided, and its course is difficult to follow. Still, with patience and care, we can trace it, now hidden in obscure recesses, but again emerging into the sunlight, strong and vigorous as ever; now muddy and stained in its contact with the substances which cross its path, but ever renewing its brightness and clearness as long as it retains a distinctive character. Then we lose sight of it when, coming into union with more powerful streams, it blends with them, and losing its own individual character, is slowly but surely carried into the fathomless sea of Time. The rise of Greece into power was very gradual. In studying it it is impossible to distinguish at all clearly between the mythical and the real. Till the time of Lycurgus, in the ninth century before Christ, dates and events are confused, while tradition and fact are blended too closely to allow any attempt at separation. As one of the passages in the early history of Greece of this transitional character, let us take the Argonautic expedition and the Trojan war. The narrative of the expedition, as generally told, is that a young prince of Thessaly, named Jason, had incurred the jealousy of his kinsman, Pelias, who reigned at Iolcus. This king, who was older than Jason and more crafty, encouraged the adventurous prince to embark in a naval expedition full of difficulty and danger. So difficult was it, that it was to be directed to a point far beyond the most remote which Greek navigation had ever attempted. To the eastern corner of the Euxine Sea was he tempted. Here, in the land of the Colchians, was supposed to be found the golden fleece; and here Jason went, taking care to embark in a very good vessel, well manned and well stored. Not only did he obtain the fleece, but he carried off Medea, the daughter of the Colchian king, Aetes. This story, as it stands, is undoubtedly mythical, but it contains certain elements of apparent truth which make it valuable. That Jason and Medea were mythical personages seems certain; but the story, viewed as a matter of history, points to the opening of an intercourse between the opposite shores of the Egean Sea. If so, we might conclude that expeditions of this kind were not confined to northern Greece, but were shared by the Peloponnesians; and the intercourse, judging from the pugnacious and fierce character which the Greeks from the earliest times had, was not likely to have been of a friendly nature. Therefore it is, that while the Argonautic expedition, in its original form, may be untrue, it is not impossible that some naval expedition of this kind may have led to a fight, and that there may be, in this indirect manner, some truth in the assertion that the Argonautic expedition was the first ground of the Trojan war, and was the first actual conflict between the Greeks and Trojans. So we come from this purely fabulous tale to the story of the Trojan war. Hercules had bestowed Laconia on Tyndareus, who had a daughter named Helen. Menelaus, the brother of Agamemnon, married her and succeeded Tyndareus, who resigned his dominions in favour of his son-in-law. In the meanwhile a flourishing state had arisen on the eastern side of the Hellespont. Its capital, Troy, had been taken by Hercules, with the assistance of Telamon, son of Eacus, but had been restored to Priam, the son of the conquered king, Laomedon, who reigned there in peace and prosperity over a number of little tribes. His son, Paris, was attracted to Laconia by the fame of Helen's beauty, and abused the hospitality of Menelaus by carrying off his wife Helen in his absence. The result of this was, that all the chiefs of Greece combined their forces, under the command of Agamemnon, to avenge this outrage, and sailed with a large armament to Troy, which, after a siege of ten years, they took and destroyed. Now this war forms the centre-point of early Grecian history and of its rise. What is fiction and what is fact it is not easy to find out; but it would be absurd to reject a story so well credited as a fable, because some parts of it are evidently mythical. That the origin of the war, according to the story, was a myth, seems most probable, and that Helen was only a poetical creation seems also certain; but of the war and of the fall of Troy there is a great deal of independent testimony. There is no reason to suppose that this war produced any important effects upon the condition of Greece. The surviving princes and chiefs may have returned to their country to enjoy the fruits of their conquest. But many must have died in the course of the war; and however little the war may have affected the State of Greece itself, its termination must have found many states without their rulers. At all events, for sixty years after the fall of Troy we can learn nothing from history of any great change in the history of Greece. But at the end of that time began a convulsion throughout the country in the shape of wars, invasions, and migrations, which thoroughly revolutionised Greece and the surrounding countries. So early, however, in history was this outbreak that, using our old standard, it was before the time of David. Thessaly seems to have been the first scene of revolt. Its inhabitants began to make raids upon the neighbouring tribes; amongst the first of whom to yield were the Boeotians. The return of the Heracleida at this time also promoted discord. These invaders bent their course westward, and descended upon the coast of the Corinthian Gulf near Naupactus. According to legend, the Heracleida were guided into the Peloponnesus by Oxylus, the Etolian chief; and their kinsman, Oxylus, fearing lest the sight of the fertile country through which they passed might tempt his followers to break their promise to him, led them, not along the western coast, but through Arcadia, into the region which they claimed as their patrimony. The Dorians and Heracleida, together, pushed their conquests throughout the Peloponnesus, sometimes meeting with success, and sometimes with failure. But one of their greatest conquests was that of Corinth. The fall of Corinth was attended by another expedition which brought them into conflict with Attica. The Dorian army marched to Athens, and lay encamped under its walls. Codrus, who was their king, was an old man ; but, bound to his country and willing to sacrifice himself for it, he determined, if possible, to repel these invaders. Hearing that the enemy was lying in ambush, he disguised himself as a woodman, and falling in with two Dorians, killed one with his hatchet, while the other killed him. The Athenians sent a messenger to claim the body of the king; but the Dorians, possibly fearing, from previous inspection, that the enemy was too strong, withdrew their forces. This expedition, therefore, came to nought, as regarded the original intentions of the invaders; but it produced a result which was permanent. The little territory of Megara was, by means of this expedition, divorced from Attica, and became a Dorian colony closely united with Corinth. Life at this time was very simple. Instead of kings, many of the states had magistrates at their head, who were elected by the whole body of citizens out of a certain number of privileged families-a sort of democratic aristocracy, in fact. The citizen was supposed to be performing his highest duty on the field of battle. Here we must leave this first part of Grecian history. The rise of the Greek nation can be traced only through a series of fables, as we have seen. But these tales point to the existence of people who were firm and free; who were continually involved in war; and who, perhaps, derived their chief strength from being unable ever, at this early time, to unite themselves into a solid kingdom under one ruler. The natural or geographical character of the country split up the people who first inhabited it in such a way as to prevent their close union; at the same time it brought them sufficiently close to one another to compel each tribe to be always ready for war. But from the earliest times these tribes seem in many instances to have been susceptible of softening influences, so that while war hardened them, it never kept them long in a barbarous state or unmindful of the advantages of civilisation. From the time of Lycurgus we shall now see how rapidly Greece rose, till it became one of the greatest powers in the world. LESSONS IN LATIN.-LV. VERBS GOVERNED BY VERBS-CONSECUTIO TEMPORUM. Not only in moods but in tenses has one verb an influence on another, in which case the latter may be said to be governed by the former. The facts connected with the influence which the tense of one verb has on the tense of another verb, combine to form the doctrine of what, in grammatical language, is called the consecutio temporum, or the sequence of the tenses. In the nature of things, a certain tense comes properly after another, and a certain other tense does not come properly after another: for instance, it is sense to declare I hear what you say, but not sense to declare I hear what you said, it being supposed that in both cases the time remains present. Instead of I hear what you said, the sense requires I hear what you say; or, if a past act is intended, then we may declare I heard what you said. You thus see that the tense of the latter verb is governed or determined by the tense of the former verb. The former verb is independent of the latter, and the latter verb is dependent on the former; so that it may be laid down as a general fact or law that the tense of the dependent verb is determined by the tense of the independent verb. These general grammatical truths are recognised in Latin, but recognised under some qualifications. A few particulars are all that can here be given. A present then follows a present tense. A present also follows a future tense, when the dependent verb is in the subjunctive mood, for the Latins have no future subjunctive. If the independent verb is a preterite, the dependent verb must be a preterite subjunctive. But in Latin the preterite, for instance docui, has two significations, for docui means either I taught or I have taught. In the first an act is spoken of as merely and absolutely past; this is called an aorist, that is, an undefined past tense, or a past tense unlimited as to particulars, whether past in relation to another past act, or in relation to a present act. But docui in the sense I have taught has a relation to the present time, I have recently taught, indicating an act which in itself or its consequences comes down to or near to the present time. Now, when you wish to know what tense to put after docui a preterite, you must learn whether or not the verb is used in the aorist or indefinite sense, or in the sense of a perfect present. If the preterite or perfect is a perfect present, then the dependent verb will be a preterite subjunctive; if the preterite is employed as an aorist, then the dependent verb or verbs must be in the imperfect or the pluperfect. The preterite used as an aorist is called the historic preterite, or the preterite of narration, because it is employed in historical narrative, whose general office it is to speak of the past indefinitely, that is, simply as past. The following table will exhibit the chief facts of the Cæsar in fines Ambianorum pervenit, qui se ei dediderunt, Cæsar came into the territories of the Ambiani, who surrendered to him. Virtuti opera danda est, sine quà virtutem assequi non possumus, To virtue we must pay attention, without which all are unable to attain virtus. In these cases the relative merely qualifies the meaning. These, therefore, are illustrations of qualification, and not of government. But besides qualifying, a relative in union with a verb, or what is called a dependent relative, may govern the verb which is in a state of dependence. The dependent verb must be in the dependent, or what is commonly called the subjunctive (subjoined) mood. The general rule may be stated in these words: A relative dependent clause takes its verb in the subjunctive mood. Observe that the construction implies two things, namely, that the clause is a dependent, and that the clause is a relative clause; merely a relative clause does not require a subjunctive mood; and a dependent verb, we have already seen, may be in the infinitive mood; asScio quid hoc sit, I know what this is. Here sit is in the subjunctive mood by the force of scio quid. The sentence consists of two members or two sentences-thus, hoc est tale, and scio hoc esse tale; the two put together make scio quid hoc sit. Note that the Latin sit is represented by the English is; consequently, in relative dependent clauses you must turn the Latin subjunctive into an English indicative, and the English indicative into a Latin subjunctive. The phrase nescio quid hoc scit may be regarded as an indirect question; thus, quid est hoc? what is that? nescio, I know not; or, in full, nescio quid hoc sit. Indirect questions have the second verb in the subjunctive mood. The usages of the subjunctive mood in Latin, which are numerous, and which require study and practice to be clearly and fully understood, may in general be traced to the fact that the subjunctive is, in its essence, the mood which denotes dependence. Hence, when dependence is to be expressed other |