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Schreiten, to ich schreite, ze. sich schritt stride

Schroten, ich schrote, se. ich schrotete to grind roughly Schwären, to ich schwäre, ze ich schwer suppurate

Schweigen, to ich schweige, sich schwieg be silent 20.

Schwellen, to ich schwelle, ich schwoll swell tu schwillst,

er schwillt

ich schwöre schwäre geschworen

ich schwiege schweige geschwiegen

ich schwölle schwill geschwollen

Schwimmen, sich schwimme, ich schwamm ich

or

schwelle schwimme geschwom

men

schwinde geschwun

to swim 20.

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schwämme, schwömme schwände schwänge ich schwöre schwöre or schwüre

Den

schwinge geschwun

gen

geschworen

(39) Rathschlagen and berathschlagen, to consult, are regular. (10) Regular in all other significations, as to demolish or to drag.

Stinken, to ich stinke, 2c. ich stank stink Stoßen, to ich stoße, du ich stieß push stößest, stößt Streichen, to ich streiche, se. ich strich stroke Streiten, to ich streite, 2c. ich stritt contend

ich striche streiche gestrichen ich stritte streite gestritten

KEY TO EXERCISES IN LESSONS IN GERMAN.

EXERCISE 171 (Vol. III., page 278).

1. Sie werken mit Ihrem Bruder Schritt halten, wenn Sie fleißiger find. 2. Gch Schritt für Schritt, und Du wirst Dein Ziel nicht verfehlen. 3. Von wem haben Sie dieses Geschenk empfangen? 4. Wovon ist es gemacht? 5. Von wem ist es gemacht? 6. Lebt meine Mutter noch? 7. Ja, sie lebt noch; aber mein Vater ist nicht mehr. 8. Wohl ihm, er ist hingegangen, wo keine Sorgen mehr sind. 9. Es weht heute ein sehr rauher Wind, und deshalb ist es besser, zu Hause zu bleiben. 10. Ich glaube, wir werten Regen bekommen, wenn der Wind sich legt. 11. Geben

(4) This must not be confounded (in the imperfect) with the regular verb sprossen. (42) So Zerstieven, to be scattered as

dust.

Sie ja nicht aus, denn die Luft ist sehr schneidend, und ich fürchte, daß Sie sich die Hänte erfrieren werden. 12. So lange ter Wind im Osten ist, wird es falt und treden bleiben. 13. Des lanzen Haters entlich müre, machte ich Frieten mit meinen Freunden.

EXERCISE 172 (Vol. III., rage 326).

1. A patriot would rather die than become a traitor. 2. The first Christians preferred suffering the severest persecutions to forsaking

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If we now further observe the time taken by each to attain any given temperature, as, for instance, 200°, we shall learn that the water takes nearly three times as long as the acid, and more than twice as long as the turpentine.

Now in each minute each must receive the same quantity of heat; it is clear, then, that different amounts of heat are required to raise the same weights of different substances to the same temperature. This fact, which is a very important one, is usually accounted for by saying that different bodies have different capacities for heat, or, as it is more commonly expressed, different specific heats.

their belief. 3. One does not suffer such a thing to be told him twice. 4. I have not seen one of my brothers for three years. 5. A friend of 6. To mine was drowned some years ago in the Danube near Vienna. travel is good, if one has money; and to live agreeable, if one has no cares. 7. It is better to live in a free country than in a despotic one. Another experiment, which the student may easily repeat, will 8. It is pleasant to travel in the society of lively friends. 9. In pros- render this much more clear. Take a number of balls composed perity man but too easily forgets what he is. 10. Many distinguished of various substances, such as lead, copper, iron, tin, bismuth, and noble men have been forgotten. 11. It should not satisfy a man to and glass (Fig. 18). Immerse them all for a short time in hot know what is right, but he ought also to endeavour to do right. 12. oil of a known temperature, or in some other way bring them all It affords me satisfaction to know that you are all still well. 13. How to one temperature, and then place them a little distance apart on little is often sufficient to make a man happy! 14. He handed him a sheet of wax about half an inch thick. The balls will melt the 15. This was sufficient to the paper after he had read it himself. 17. He has produced wax at very different rates. If their temperature was high at satisfy him. 16. The cook prepares the food. this little confusion on purpose. 18. The cook tasted the soup before first, the glass will soon melt through the wax, and fall; the iron she served it up. 19. We must try if we cannot help him yet. 20. and copper likewise sink rapidly, and in a short time they too will Just taste this wine (to see) if it is sweet enough. 21. He told me to pass through it, the iron being a little in advance of the copper. remember him to you. The tin ball comes next, and may just be able to be seen underneath, while the lead and bismuth sink but a little way, and there remain: though they had the same temperature as the rest, the amount of heat they possessed was only sufficient to

HEAT.-IV.

CONVERSION OF HEAT INTO FORCE-SPECIFIC HEAT-MODES melt a very small portion of the wax.

OF ASCERTAINING TRANSMISSION OF HEAT-CONDUCTION.

ILLUSTRATIONS of the conversion of heat into motive power, as described in our last lesson, are frequently met with. One of the best of these is afforded by the steam-engine. If we enter any large factory where steam-power is employed, we find different machines at work. In one place, it may be, heavy weights are being raised or moved; in another, large pieces of metal are being turned or cut into shape, or other operations being carried on with apparent ease by the aid of machinery. For all this a considerable amount of force is evidently required, and the question arises, Whence does all this force come? The machines, we know, cannot create it; it is evident, therefore, that the source of it must be sought for in the heat produced by the combustion of the fuel in the furnace.

If the supply of fuel be diminished, and consequently a smaller quantity of heat be produced, less work will be accomplished; and if we could in any way ascertain exactly the amount of heat carried away by the hot air up the chimney, and that lost by radiation and conduction, and dissipated in other ways, we should find that there was still a portion of that produced by the combustion of the fuel left unaccounted for; this balance would be exactly equivalent to the amount of work that had been performed. Allowance must, of course, be made in this calculation for the force required to impart motion to the machinery itself.

A portion of the force thus produced is often re-converted into heat. If we stand by a drilling-machine, or lathe, in which a piece of iron is being shaped, we shall find that the turnings or borings are frequently too hot to be touched with any degree of comfort, although the mass of metal and the tool were both quite cold. The motion of the machinery is here converted into one of the particles of the iron, which manifests itself in the form of heat. In this way we learn that heat, like matter, cannot be destroyed, but only converted into other modes of motion.

In our first lesson we selected as our thermal unit the quantity of heat requisite to raise a pound of water 1o in the Centigrade scale. Now we should at first suppose that the same amount of heat would raise the temperature of a pound of any other substance to the same extent. Experiment, however, the philosopher's grand resort, soon shows us that this is not the

case.

Let us provide three sources of heat of equal intensity-or, better still, an oil or water bath, capable of holding three large beaker glasses. Equal weights of water, oil of turpentine, and sulphuric acid should now be put in these, and a thermometer should likewise be placed in each beaker. Now apply a powerful source of heat, such as a Bunsen's gas-burner, and watch the thermometers. The heat applied to each vessel is, of course, the same, but the thermometer in the sulphuric acid will soon be seen to be rising more rapidly than the others, that in the turpentine comes next, while that in the water is lowest of all.

This experiment suggests to us a mode of ascertaining the specific heat of different bodies, which is frequently adopted. It consists in ascertaining the amount of ice which a given weight of the substance is able to melt after being raised to s high temperature. We know that when water becomes melted, 142° of heat become latent. The thermal unit is, however, always reckoned in the Centigrade scale, instead of in Fahrenheit's, and 142° Fahr. is about equal to 79° Cent. We may say, then, that 79 thermal units are required to melt a pound of ice. The substance to be tested is therefore carefully weighed, and raised to a high temperature, which is ascertained and noted. It is then placed in a dry cavity in a lump of ice, covered over by a slab of the same material, and left until it is reduced to the freezing point. The moisture is then carefully absorbed from it and from the cavity by a previously weighed cloth, and thus the exact amount melted is at once shown. From this the specific heat may be calculated, and in this way a table can be drawn up, showing the specific heats of different substances.

Water is always taken as the standard, and the specific heat of other bodies compared with that of an equal weight of this substance. This is partly done as a matter of convenience; it is found, however, that the specific heat of water is greater than that of any other substance. This fact is an important one in the welfare of the globe. The sea, as is well known, always tends to preserve a uniform temperature, so that islands do not suffer from the same extremes of heat or cold as continents do. The reason is that, on account of its great specific heat, a large amount of heat is requisite to produce even a small variation in the temperature of any mass of water, and hence it is very slow in manifesting these changes. In this way the sea serves as a great equaliser of temperature, absorbing a great deal of heat when the temperature is high, and giving it out again as it falls.

As it is often difficult to procure a lump of ice large enough to use in the mode described above, the apparatus represented in Fig. 19 was devised and used by Lavoisier and Laplace in their investigations on specific heat. It consists of three concentric metal vessels fitted with covers, as may be seen more clearly by the sectional view (Fig. 20). The substance, м, to be tested is weighed, and its temperature ascertained; it is then placed in the inner vessel, the spaces between that and the next, and also between the middle and outer vessels, being filled with pounded ice. The outer layer prevents any heat from without reaching the middle vessel, and the water produced from this issues by the tap E. A separate tap, D, carries off the water melted by the heat of M; this is received in a glass, and measured, and shows the amount of heat given off by the substance in cooling. The main drawback to this apparatus arises from the fact that some of the water remains among the interstices of the ice, and therefore the amount received in the glass is somewhat less than

iron by 28, zinc by 324, copper by 32, and so on, and we shall then find that the products so obtained correspond in most cases very closely. As a result of a great number of experiments, it is found that the specific heat of equivalent weights of most simple bodies varies between 3 and 3.3. This is usually accounted for by supposing that the molecules of all the elements have the same capacity for heat. In those cases where this does not hold true, the proportion is usually a simple one, as a half, or double. Investigation further shows that in chemical compounds having similar formulæ, the specific heats of equivalent weights are likewise similar, so that evidently some hidden link of connection exists between chemical composition and specific heat.

Fig. 21.

that actually melted. If M weigh exactly a pound, and it be raised to the temperature 142° Fahr., the specific heat is at once known by learning what portion of a pound of water is melted. A quarter of a pound in the vessel would indicate a specific heat of 0.25, and so on. When the substance has a different weight, or is raised to a different temperature, allowance must be made by a sum in proportion. There is another way in which the differences in the specific heats of various substances may be shown and ascertained; this is known as the method of mixtures. If we take a pound of water at 100°, and another pound at 150°, and mix them, the temperature of the mixture will be the mean of the two, or 125°. If, however, instead of the pound of water at 150°, we take a pound of mercury at the same temperature, the temperature of the mixture will only be about 102°, showing how much less heat was contained in the mercury than in the water. The mercury has lost 48°, while the water has only gained 2°, and yet we know that whatever amount of heat the one has lost, the other must have gained. The mode of ascertaining the specific heat of any substance in this way is compa ratively simple. Suppose, for instance, we have a piece of copper weigh. ing fifty ounces; it is brought to a temperature of 200°, and maintained at that for a short time, so that every part may be equally heated. It is then immersed in one hundred ounces of water, at a temperature of 60°, and after it has had time to share its heat with the water, which is gently stirred to aid this, the temperature of the whole is found to be 66. The water here has gained 100 (661-60) = 650°, while the copper has lost 50 (200-66}) = 6675°, and hence its specific heat is, or 0-096. The specific heat of liquids may also be learnt by noting the time they take to cool from a high temperature, as those which gain heat most rapidly lose it likewise most rapidly. The small specifie heat of mercury, it being only about th that of water, renders it specially suitable for filling thermometers, since it rapidly acquires the temperature of any liquid in which it is immersed, and does so, too, without greatly lowering its temperature. The annexed table gives the specific heats of a few of the more common substances:

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Fig. 19.

Fig. 20.

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0.0324 Now in this table no relation whatever is visible between the different numbers, but if, instead of taking equal weights, we take the substances in the proportion of their atomic weights, we shall find a simple law. To check this, let us multiply the numbers placed above against the elementary bodies by the atomic weights of those bodies. Sulphur we multiply by 16,

Fig. 23.

It now remains for us to inquire into the ways in which heat may be communicated from one body to another, and these may be classed under three different heads-conduction, convection, and radiation. The former of these is most common, and must be spoken of first. If we take a rod of glass, and another of iron, and place one end of each in the flame of a spiritlamp, these ends will soon become red-hot. After remaining so a few minutes, the iron rod will be

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B

Fig. 24.

too hot to be touched within a considerable distance of the hot end, whereas the glass rod may be handled with impunity almost up to the heated part. In the case of the iron the motion of the molecules is transferred from one to another till, in a little time, the whole rod becomes hot; the glass rod, on the other hand, prevents the passage of these vibrations, and hence is called a bad conductor.

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The apparatus shown in Fig. 21 illustrates the difference in the conducting powers of various bodies. A metallic trough has a number of holes made along one side. These are closed by corks, through which rods of various substances-as wood, glass, and metal-are passed. Melted wax or tallow is now smeared on the rods, and allowed to cool, and the trough is then filled with boiling water. The rate at which the heat is conducted along the different rods is at once seen by observing the distances to which the wax is melted along them.

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Fig. 18.

Fig. 22 shows a more elaborate plan of ascertaining conducting power. A bar of the metal to be tested has cavities made along it at regular distances of three or four inches. Mercury is now poured into these, and a delicate thermometer put in each. Heat is then applied at one end, and the rate at which it travels along is shown by observing the readings of the different thermometers. Other experimenters have done away with the cavities, and employed a flat bar, testing the temperature at different parts by means of a thermoelectric pile. It is found in this way that the conducting power of different metals varies very greatly, that of silver, which is the greatest, being expressed by 100, while that of German

silver is only 6. One important fact which strikes us here is that their conducting power for electricity seems to correspond closely with that for heat.

We shall now understand the reason why metals and other bodies feel cold to the touch. They are good conductors, and therefore carry away rapidly the heat from the part of the body with which they are in contact; bad conductors, on the other hand, only rob us of a small amount. As a general rule, all organic substances, and those which are loose in texture, are bad conductors, hence these are selected as the materials for our clothing. A great mistake is often made in supposing that clothing actually imparts heat; the real fact is, that it merely keeps in the heat which is produced in the system. The human body is considerably above the surrounding air in temperature, being kept so by that portion of our food which is burnt in the system. This heat would be very rapidly dissipated, and imparted to the air and surrounding objects, did not our garments intervene and, by their non-conducting power, prevent its escape. A further illustration that this is really the case is seen in the fact that ice-carts are carefully covered over with blankets, certainly not with the intention of keeping the ice warm, but for the sake of keeping out the warmth of the air, which would rapidly melt it.

Air is a bad conductor; hence loose bodies, such as sawdust, shavings, or tow, which enclose a large amount of air in their interstices, are frequently employed to exclude cold. Water, likewise, is a very bad conductor. This at first seems unlikely, when we remember how quickly a quantity of water may be brought to the boiling point; but we shall soon see that this is not heated by conduction, but by convection. To prove this, we may take a large jar of water, and, having placed a delicate thermometer at the bottom, set light to a tin saucer of spirit floating on the top. A large amount of heat will thus be produced, and the saucer will soon become intensely hot; the thermometer at the bottom, however, will remain unaffected for a long time. A simpler way of proving this fact is shown in Fig. 23. A test-tube is filled with ice-cold water, some fragments of ice being kept at the bottom. A spirit-lamp may then be applied to the upper part, and the water there will boil for a long time before the ice at the bottom is melted. This would not be the case if the water could conduct the heat.

That important invention, the safety-lamp, depends for its action on the conducting power of the metals. The lamp is entirely surrounded by a shade composed of wire gauze, which virtually consists of a large number of very short tubes, placed side by side. As the flame attempts to pass through these, its heat is conducted away, and it is no longer able to ignite the explosive gases outside.

The mode in which the metal conducts the heat away will be easily seen by taking a cylinder, one end of which, A (Fig. 24), is composed of wood, while the other end is of metal. If now we wind a piece of paper round this, and hold it in the flame of a spirit-lamp, the paper over the wooden part will be charred, while that over the other end will merely be smoked, the metal underneath having conducted away the heat before it had time to scorch the paper. This also explains how a bullet may be melted in a piece of writing-paper. The paper must be wrapped smoothly round it, and the flame allowed to play only on the part in contact with the lead. The metal will, of course, burn through the paper as soon as it is melted, but up to this time the heat is all employed in melting the lead, and is thus kept away from the paper.

LESSONS IN ENGLISH.-LI.
VERBS-REVIEW-VERB-PARSING.

THE three root-forms of the English verb may pass into a great variety of forms, as appears from the following combinations of the verb to teach :—

1. With the Infinitive Mood.-I do teach, I shall teach, I will teach, I may teach, I can teach, I must teach, let me teach.

2. With the Participle Present. -I am teaching, I shall be teaching, I teaching, let me be teaching.-I have been teaching, I shall have been will be teaching, I may be teaching, I can be teaching, I must be teaching, I will have been teaching, I may have been teaching, I can have been teaching, I must have been teaching, let me have been teaching.

3. With the Participle Past.—I am taught, I shall be taught, I will be taught, I may be taught, I can be taught, I must be taught, let me be taught.-I have taught, I shall have taught, I will have taught, I may have taught, I can have taught, I must have taught, let me have taught. I have been taught, I shall have been taught, I may hare have been taught, let me have been taught. been taught, I might have been taught, I can have been taught, I must

Mark that when two or more of what are called auxiliary verbs are combined with a participle, usually the first expresses the manner and the second the time; the first only admits of variation in itself (inflection), as, I might have loved, thou mightst

have loved.

The forms just given have to be multiplied first by the parsons-three singular, three plural; secondly, by the tensespresent and past; thirdly, by if and other conjunctions giving rise to the dependent and the elliptical constructions. Then there are the affirmative, the negative, and the interrogative forms; as well as the interrogative-negative. Besides this there is the uncontracted and the contracted form, as well as the solemn or the scriptural form: for example :

1. Forms multiplied by the Persons.-I am teaching, thou art teaching, he is teaching, we are teaching, you are teaching, they are teaching.

2. Forms multiplied by the Tenses.-I teach, I taught, I was teaching. teaching, if I was teaching, etc. 3. Forms multiplied by IF, etc.-If I teach, if I taught, if I am

4. Affirmative, Negative, Interrogative, and Interrogative-negative Forms, etc.-I teach; I do not teach; do I teach? do I not teach?

5. Contracted and Uncontracted Forms.-They don't teach, they do not teach; I don't teach, I do not teach.

6. Scriptural Forms.-He teacheth, he loveth, he instructeth, he guideth.

A few facts respecting the verb remain to be set forth. The most general division of verbs is that which exhibits them as personal and impersonal.

Personal verbs are such as take the ordinary persons I, thou, he, etc. Impersonal verbs take only the third person of the neuter gender, namely, it; for example, it rains, it snows, it hails, it thunders. It has been proposed to call these verbs unipersonal (having one person), on the ground that impersonal signifies that which has no person. I do not know that the proposed change is worth adopting. Strictly speaking, it is not a person, inasmuch as a thing is not a person. It is more important to remark that in these impersonal verbs the action of the verb is represented in the most abstract form of which it is possible next to the infinitive. Thus the noun snow passes into an indefinite verbal shape in to snow, and to snow becomes a little less indefinite in the form of it snows. Impersonal verbs mostly refer to atmospheric changes, and are used less extensively in English than in most other languages.

Verbs may be divided into primitive and derivative. The primitive are intransitive, the derivative are transitive. The change is effected for the most part by operating on the vowel: for example:

Primitive.-Rise, lie, sit, fall, drink.

Derivative.-Raise, lay, set, fell, drench.

I have already given instances of verbs derived from nouns by a change in the accent or pronunciation. Another class of verbs is formed from nouns by hardening the final consonant;

If we take a few flakes of solid carbonic acid, procured as described in our last lesson, and place them on the hand, they will not feel as cold as we should expect. The reason of this is that they become slowly converted into gas, which keeps them from absolute contact with the hand. If a little ether be mixed with them, and the mixture dropped on the heat, intense cold will be produced, and all the effects of a severe burn will be experienced. If a lump of frozen mercury be taken up in the finger, exactly the same result will be produced. We see, then, that an intensely cold substance burns as an intensely hot one does. If a quantity of mercury be frozen, with a wire in it to serve as a handle, it may be lifted like a solid mass. Now dip it into a vessel of water, and in a short time it will begin to melt, drops of it falling to the bottom of the vessel. These, as they fall, will absorb so much heat as to freeze tubes in the Close. water, down which the mercury will run.

as

Nouns. Abuse.

Verbs. Abuse

Advice.

Device.

Devi'se.

Nouns. Verbs. Nouns. Verbs. Diffuse. Diffu'se. Prophecy. Prophesy. (abuze). Excuse. Excu'se. Rise. Advi'se. Grease. Grea'se. Clo'se. House. Hou'se. Mouse. Mou'so.

Rise

(rize).

Use.

Us'c.

Some verbs are termed defective; they are such as want some of the parts ordinarily ascribed to verbs. Beware is a defective verb, being used only in the imperative or to give a caution. Quoth is a defective verb, and is employed in no other than the third person singular. Begone may be accounted another defective verb like beware. Begone is a compound, made up of be and gone, that is, get away; and beware is composed of be and ware, found in aware and wary.

THE PARTICIPLE.

Participles can scarcely be considered a separate form of speech. A participle (Latin pars, a part, and capio, I take) is so called because it partakes of the qualities of a verb and an adjective. It would be more correct to say that participles may be used as adjectives, and that sometimes, wholly losing their verbal force, they become adjectives.

We have seen that the English verb, when reduced to its simplest form, consists of three parts; as, talk, talking, talked. Talking is called a present participle; it is emphatically present. "I talk" describes a general habit rather than an act now taking place; I am talking is evidently a continued act, and in regard to time may be spoken of as a continued present. It is the termination ing that makes talking present. A transitive participle may be used intransitively; as— The house is building.

The present participle has the force of the Latin gerund; for example, in this sentence:

In building the house they used stone.

The present participle may stand as an infinitive; as-
Buying a house is better than building one; that is, to buy is better

than to build.

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The house is built. The boy is loved. When we say "the boy is loved," we signify a present fact; but when we say "the house is built," we mean, that the house stands there complete.

When a process is meant, it is better to say, "The house is building;" or to employ the active form, as, "I am reading the volume." Some, however, prefer, "The house is being built." But this form has no sufficient authority. Besides, there is an evident absurdity in speaking of a thing as at the same moment past and present, namely, being built.

ADVERBS.

Adverbs qualify the action of verbs, and so stand in the relation to verbs which is borne by the adjective towards the noun. Now an action may be viewed either as to the place where it was done, the time when it was done, and the manner in which it was done; as

The theft was adroitly committed here yesterday.

In this instance the place is indicated by here, the time is indicated by yesterday, the manner is indicated by adroitly. But manner is a quality which admits of variation; one theft may be committed more or less adroitly than another; a theft may be committed most adroitly.

We thus obtain four classes of adverbs :

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when, then, here, there; of derivative adverbs take as instances justly (from just), yearly, surprisingly. Of compound adverbs take as instances sometimes, nowhere, to-morrow.

The manner in which compound adverbs are formed from simpler forms is very obvious. Sometimes is made up of the adjective some and the noun times; oftentimes consists of the adverb often and the noun times.

Adverbs are ordinarily formed by the addition of the ending ly to a noun, an adjective, or a participle; as man, manly, wise, wisely, loving, lovingly. The termination ly is an adjective as well as an adverbial termination, being from the German lich, as in mannlich (Anglo-Saxon lice), manly; but in early, dearly, etc., it has an adverbial force.

When an adjective terminates in ly, the adverbial suffix ly is not added; the second ly being omitted for the sake of sound, since such forms as godlily, heavenlily, friendlily would be very unpleasant; accordingly we say, "he was received" not friendlily but amicably, or "in a friendly manner."

If the adjective ends in le, the termination is changed into ly; as noble, nobly, for noblely; so idle, idly. In whole, the l is doubled, as whole, wholly.

Adjectives of more than one syllable ending in y change the y into i before ly; as easy, easily; angry, angrily, hearty, heartily. Monosyllables ending in y either retain the y, or change it into i; as dry, dryly, day, daily.

If the adjective ends in a double l, y simply is added; as full, fully; but manful, manfully; cheerful, cheerfully.

The degree is marked in adverbs of degree by more and most, less and least; as wisely, more wisely, most wisely; actively, less actively, least actively.

But inflection properly so called belongs to some few adverbs; oftenest; soon, sooner, soonest. Hence we find in adverbs the as late, later, latest; near, nearer, nearest; often, oftener, forms er and est used in forming the degrees of comparison in adjectives.

ill, worse, worst; well, better, best; much, more, most; lately, There also occur adverbs which are irregularly formed; as different to that from which ill comes; so is it with well, better, latterly, lastly. Worse and worst are, however, from a root

best.

Adverbs of place may be subdivided into those which answer to the question where? those which answer to the question whither ? those which answer to the question whence? and those which denote order.

1. Adverbs of place (at or in), viz.: where, here, there, yonder, above, below, about, around, somewhere, anywhere, elsewhere, everywhere, nowhere, wherever, wheresoever, within, without, whereabout, hereabout, thereabout. The preference for a long-drawn sound at the end of a word has added an s to these three words, making them hereabouts, thereabouts, whereabouts; the same regard to sound has converted the preposition toward into towards. The retention of the s is a matter of doubtful propriety.

2. Adverbs which denote motion to a certain place arewhither, hither, thither, up, down, back, forth, aside, ashore, abroad, aloft, home, homeward, inward, upward, downward, backward, forward. Some of the adverbs ending in ward are also used as adjectives; as, a forward (froward) child, a backward scholar; when used with an adverbial force they are often found terminating in s, as backwards, outwards. Up and down may have the construction of prepositions; as

Up the side of the house ran the flames.
The bucket went down the side of the well,

In order to know whether these and other words are adverbs or prepositions, you must study their construction. If, as here, nouns are dependent on them, they are prepositions; but if they go in immediate union with verbs, they are adverbs.

3. The third subdivision embraces adverbs which denote motion from or to a place; as, thence, whence, hence; sometimes pleonastically given, as, from hence, etc.; the word pleonasti cally (from the Greek) is employed to signify that more is said than is necessary to convey the sense according to the laws of grammar.

4. Besides, there are adverbs which indicate the order of place; as, first, secondly, thirdly, fourthly, etc.; thus secondly means in the second place in a series of heads or topics constituting a discourse, a speech, a chapter in a book.

Adverbs of time may be arranged in the following classes :

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