DIVINE HONOURS PAID TO AUGUSTUS.

155

himself did, in his most public and solemn asseverations, Suet. 24. So Claudius, by Livia, Dio. 1. 5. Suet. Claud. 11.

In imitation of the temple and divine honours appointed by the Triumviri to Julius Cæsar, Dio. xlvii. 18., and confirmed by Augustus, Id. li. 20., altars were privately erected to Augustus himself, at Rome, Virg. Ecl. i. 7. Horat. Ep. ii. 1. 16. Ovid. Fast. i. 13., and particularly in the provinces; but he permitted no temple to be publicly consecrated to him, unless in conjunction with the city, Rome: AUGUSTO ET URBI ROME; and that only in the provinces, Tacit. Ann. iv. 37.; for in the city they were strictly prohibited, Suet. 52. After his death, they were very frequent, Tacit. Ann. i. 11. 73. Dio. lvi. 46.

It was likewise decreed, in honour of Augustus, that, when the priests offered up vows for the safety of the people and senate, they should do the same for him, Dio. li. 19., so for the succeeding emperors, Tacit. Ann. iv. 17., particularly at the beginning of the year, Id. xvi. 22. on the 3d of January, Dio. lix. 24. also, that, in all public and private entertainments, libations should be made to him with wishes for his safety, Dio. li. 19. Ovid. Fast. ii. 637. Pont. ii. 3. ult. as to the Lares and other gods, Horat. Od. iv. 5. 33.

ii. 5.

On public occasions, the emperors wore a crown and a triumphal robe, Dio. li. 20. Tacit. Annal. xiii. 8. They also used a particular badge, of having fire carried before them, Herodian. i. 8. 8. i. 16. 9. Marcus Antoninus calls it a lamp, i. 17., probably borrowed from the Persians, Xenophon. Cyrop. viii. 3. p. 215. Ammian. xxiii. 6. Something similar seems to have been used by the magistrates of the municipal towns; prunæ batillus v. -um, a pan of burning coals, or a portable hearth (focus portabilis), in which incense was burnt; a perfumed stove, Horat. Sat. i. 5. 36.

Dioclesian introduced the custom of kneeling to the emperors (adorari se jussit, cùm ante eum cuncti salutarentur), Eutrop. ix. 16. Aurelius Victor, de Cas. c. 39., says, that the same thing was done to Caligula and Domitian. So Dio. lix. 4. 27, 28.

Augustus, at first, used the powers conferred on him with great moderation; as, indeed, all the first emperors did in the beginning of their government, Dio. lvii. 8. lix. 4. In his lodging and equipage he differed little from an ordinary citizen of distinguished rank, except being attended by his prætorian guards. But after he had gained the soldiers by donatives, the people by a distribution of grain, and the whole body of citizens by the sweetness of repose, he gradually increased his authority (insurgere paulatim), and engrossed all the powers of the state (munia senatûs, magistratuum, legum in se transferre), Tacit. Ann. i. 2. Such of the nobility as were most compliant (quanto quis servitio promptior) were raised to wealth and preferments. Having the command of the army and treasury, he could do every thing. For although he pretended to separate his own revenues from those of the state, yet both were disposed of equally at his pleasure, Dio. liii. 16.

The long reign and artful conduct of Augustus so habituated the Romans to subjection, that they never afterwards so much as made one general effort to regain their liberty, nor even to mitigate the rigour of tyranny. In consequence of which, their character became

156 EFFECTS OF MONARCHY ON THE ROMAN CHARACTER.

more and more degenerate. After being deprived of the right of voting, they lost all concern about public affairs; and were only anxious, says Juvenal, about two things, bread and games (PANEM et CIRCENSES, i. e. largesses and spectacles), Juvenal. x. 80. Hence, from this period their history is less interesting, and, as Dio observes, less authentic; because, when every thing was done by the will of the prince, or of his favourites and freedmen, the springs of action were less known than under the republic, Dio. liii. 19. It is surprising that, though the Romans at different times were governed by princes of the most excellent dispositions, and of the soundest judgment, who had seen the woful effects of wicked men being invested with unlimited power, yet none of them seem ever to have thought of new-modelling the government, and of providing an effectual check against the future commission of similar enormities. Whether they thought it impracticable, or wished to transmit to their successors, unimpaired, the same powers which they had received; or from what other cause, we know not. It is at least certain that no history of any people shows more clearly the pernicious effects of an arbitrary and elective monarchy, on the character and happiness of both prince and people, than that of the ancient Romans. Their change of government was, indeed, the natural consequence of that success with which their lust of conquest was attended. For the force employed to enslave other nations, being turned against themselves, served at first to accomplish and afterwards to perpetuate their own servitude. And it is remarkable, that the nobility of Rome, whose rapacity and corruption had so much contributed to the loss of liberty, were the principal sufferers by this change; for on them those savage monsters who succeeded Augustus chiefly exercised their cruelty. The bulk of the people, and particularly the provinces, were not more oppressed than they had been under the republic. Thus Tacitus observes, Neque provinciæ illum rerum statum abnuebant, suspecto senatûs populique imperio ob certamina potentium, et avaritiam magistratuum; invalido legum auxilio, quæ vi, ambitu, postremo pecuniâ turbabantur, Annal. i. 2.

PUBLIC SERVANTS OF THE MAGISTRATES.

THE public servants (ministri) of the magistrates were called by the common name of APPARITORES, Liv. i. 8. because they were at hand to execute their commands (quod iis apparebant, i. e. præstò erant ad obsequium, Serv. ad Virg. Æn. xii. 850.) and their service or attendance APPARITIO, Cic. Fam. xiii. 54. These were,

I. SCRIBE, Notaries or clerks who wrote out the public accounts, the laws, and all the proceedings (acta) of the magistrates. Those who exercised that office were said scriptum facere, Liv. ix. 46. Gell. vi. 9. from scriptus, -ûs. They were denominated from the magistrates whom they attended; thus, Scribæ quæstorii*, ædilitii, prætorii, &c., and were divided into different decuriæ; whence decuriam emere, for munus scribæ emere, Cic. Ver. iii. 79. It was determined by lot what magistrate each of them should attend, Cic. Cat. iv. 7. This office was more honourable among the Greeks than the Romans, "Scriptum quæstorium comparavit, are the words of Suetonius, in his Life of Horace."-T.

Nep. Eum. 1. The scribe at Rome, however, were generally composed of freeborn citizens; and they became so respectable, that their order is called by Cicero honestus (quod eorum fidei tabulæ publicæ, periculaque magistratuum committuntur), Cic. Verr. iii. 79.

There were also actuarii or notarii, who took down in short-hand what was said or done (notis excipiebant), Suet. Jul. 55. These were different from the scribe, and were commonly slaves or freedmen, Dio. Iv. 7. The scribe were also called librarii, Festus. But librarii is usually put for those who transcribe books, Cic. Att. xii. 6. Suet. Domit. 10., for which purpose, the wealthy Romans, who had a taste for literature, sometimes kept several slaves, Nep. Att. 13.

The method of writing short-hand is said to have been invented by Mæcenas, Dio. lv. 7.; according to Isidore, by Tiro, the favourite slave and freedman of Cicero, Isid. i. 22. Senec. Ep. 90.

II. PRÆCONES, heralds or public criers, who were employed for various purposes: :

1. In all public assemblies they ordered silence (silentium indicebant vel imperabant: EXSURGE, PRÆCO, FAC POPULO AUDIENTIAM, Plaut. Pan. prol. 11.), by saying, SILETE Vel TACETE; and in sacred rites by a solemn form, FAVETE LINGUIS, Horat. Od. iii. 1. ORE FAVETE OMNES, Virg. Æn. v. 71. Hence, SACRUM silentium, for altissimum or maximum, Horat. Od. ii. 13. 29. Ore favent, they are silent, Ovid. Amor. iii. 13. 29.

2. In the comitia they called the tribes and centuries to give their votes; they pronounced the vote of each century; they called out the names of those who were elected, Cic. Verr. v. 15. (See p. 87.) When laws were to be passed, they recited them to the people (p.85.) In trials, they summoned the judices, the persons accused, their accusers, and sometimes the witnesses.

Sometimes heralds were employed to summon the people to an assembly, Liv. i. 59. iv. 32., and the senate to the senate-house, iii. 38. (see p. 8.); also the soldiers, when encamped, to hear their general make a speech, Liv. i. 28.

3. In sales by auction, they advertised them (auctionem conclamabant vel prædicabant), Plaut. Men. fin. Cic. Verr. iii. 16. Off. iii. 13. Horat. de Art. Poet. 419.; they stood by the spear, and called out what was offered. (See p. 53.)

4. In the public games, they invited the people to attend them; they ordered slaves and other improper persons to be removed from them, Cic. de Resp. Har. 12. Liv. ii. 37.; they proclaimed (prædicabant) the victors, and crowned them, Cic. Fam. v. 12.; they invited the people to see the secular games which were celebrated only once every 110 years, by a solemn form, CONVENITe ad ludos specTANDOS, QUOS NEC SPECTAVIT QUISQUAM, NEC SPECTATURUS EST, Suet. Claud. 21. Herodian, iii. 8.

5. In solemn funerals, at which games sometimes used to be exhibited, Cic. de Legg. ii. 24., they invited people to attend by a certain form; EXSEQUIAS CHREMETI, QUIBUS EST COMMODUM, IRE JAM TEMPUS EST, OLLUS EFFERTUR, Ter. Phorm. v. 8. 38. Hence these funerals were called FUNERA INDICTIVA, Festus in QUIRITES, Suet. Jul. 84. The præcones also used to give public notice when such a person died; thus, OLLUS QUIRIS LETO DATUS EST, Festus, ibid.

6. In the infliction of capital punishment, they sometimes signified the orders of the magistrate to the lictor, Liv. xxvi. 15. LICtor, VIRO forti ADDE virgas et in EUM LEGE primum AGE, ibid. 16.

7. When things were lost or stolen, they searched for them, Plaut. Merc. iii. 4. v. 78. Petron. Arbit. c. 57., where an allusion is supposed to be made to the custom abolished by the Æbutian law.

The office of a public crier, although not honourable, was profitable, Juvenal, vii. 6. &c. They were generally freeborn, and divided into decuriæ.

Similar to the præcones were those who collected the money bidden for goods at an auction from the purchaser, called COACTORES, Hor. Sat. i. 6.86. Cic. pro Cluent. 64. They were servants (ministri) of the money-brokers, who attended at the auctions. Hence, coactiones argentarias factitare, to exercise the trade of such a collector, Suet. Vesp. 1. They seem also to have been employed by bankers to procure payment from debtors of every kind. But the collectors of the public revenues were likewise called COACTORES, Cic. pro Rab. Post. 11.

III. LICTORES. The lictors were instituted by Romulus, who borrowed them from the Etruscans. They are commonly supposed to have their name, Liv. i. 8. (a ligando), from their binding the hands and legs of criminals before they were scourged, Gell. xii. 3. They carried on their shoulder rods (virgas ulmeas, Plaut. Asin. ii. 2. v. 74. iii. 2. v. 29. Viminei fasces virgarum, Id. Epid. i. 1. 26. vel ex betula, Plin. xvi. 18. s. 30.) bound with a thong in the form of a bundle (bacillos loro colligatos in modum fascis), and an axe jutting out in the middle of them.* They went before all the greater magistrates, except the censors, one by one in a line, Liv. xxiv. 44. He who went foremost was called PRIMUS LICTOR, Cic. ad Fratr. i. 1. 7.; he who went last, or next to the magistrate, was called PROXIMUS LICTOR, Liv. ibid. Sallust. Jug. 12., or Postremus, Cic. Divin. i. 28., i. e. the chief lictor, summus lictor, who used to receive and execute the commands of the magistrate.

The office of the lictors was,

1. To remove the crowd (ut turbam summoverent), Liv. iii. 11. 48. viii. 33. Hor. Od. ii. 16. 10. by saying, CEDITE, CONSUL VENIT: DATE VIAM vel LOCUM CONSULI; st VOBIS VIDETUR, DISCEDITE, QUIRITES, Liv. ii. 56., or some such words, (solennis ille lictorum et prænuncius clamor, Plin. Pan. 61.) whence the lictor is called summotor aditûs, Liv. xlv. 29. This sometimes occasioned a good deal of noise and bustle, Liv. passim. When the magistrate returned home, a lictor knocked at the door with his rod (forem, uti mos est, virgâ percussit), Liv. vi. 34., which he also did when the magistrate went to any other house, Plin. vii. 30. s. 31.

2. To see that proper respect was paid to the magistrates (ANIMADVERTERE ut debitus honos iis redderetur), Suet. Jul. 80. What this respect was, Seneca informs us, Epist. [30.] 64., namely, dis

"After the banishment of the kings, the axe was removed by Val. Poplicola, lest the sentiment of liberty should be weakened by the terror of capital punishBut when a dictator was chosen, the axe was placed in the middle of the fasces, as it was during the regal government." · Crombie's G. ii. p. 163.

ment.

mounting from horseback, uncovering the head, going out of the way, and also rising up to them, &c. Suet. Jul. 78. [Liv. xxiv. 44.]

3. To inflict punishment on those who were condemned, which they were ordered to do in various forms: I, LICTOR COLLIGA MANUS; I, CAPUT OBNUBE HUJUS; ARBORI INFELICI SUSPENDE; VERBERATO VEL INTRA POMORIUM vel extra POMERIUM, Liv. i. 26. I, LICTOR, DELIGA AD PALUM, Id. viii. 7. ACCEDE, LICTOR, VIRGAS ET SECURES EXPEDI, Id. viii. 32. IN EUM LEGE AGE, i. e. securi percute, vel feri,

xxvi. 16.

The lictors were usually taken from the lowest of the common people, Liv. ii. 55., and often were the freedmen of him on whom they attended. They were different from the public slaves, who waited on the magistrates, Cic. in Ver. i. 26.

IV. ACCENSI. These seem to have had their names from summoning (ab acciendo) the people to an assembly, and those who had lawsuits to court (in jus). One of them attended on the consul who had not the fasces, Suet. Jul. 20. Liv. iii. 33. Before the invention of clocks, one of them called out to the prætor in court when it was the third hour, or nine o'clock, before noon; when it was mid-day, and the ninth hour, or three o'clock afternoon, Varro de Lat. Ling. v. 9. Plin. vii. 60. They were commonly the freedmen of the magistrate on whom they attended; at least in ancient times, Cic ad Fratr i. 1.4. The Accensi were also an order of soldiers, called Supernumerarii, because not included in the legion, Veget. ii. 19. Ascon. in Cic. Verr. i. 28. Liv viii. 8. 10. [So called, quia accensebantur, vel ad censum adjiciebantur.]

These were properly the

V. VIATORES [couriers, runners]. officers who attended on the tribunes, Liv. ii. 56., and ædiles, xxx. 39. Anciently they used to summon the senators from the country where they usually resided; whence they had their name (quòd sæpe in vià essent), Cic. de Sen. 16. Columell. Præf. 1. [See p. 8.]

["The STATOR was an officer or serjeant, who stood beside the magistrate, ready to execute his orders, chiefly, if not entirely, as a messenger. • Literas tuas a te mihi stator tuus reddidit,' Cic. Fam. Ep. xi. 17. Præsto mihi fuit stator ejus cum literis,' Id. x. 21. In the reign of the emperors, the Statores guarded the back part of the Prætorium, or general's tent; and they were called Statores prætorii. In each camp there were two centuries of Statores, under the command of the Evocati," Crombie's G. ii. 197.]

VI. CARNIFEX. The public executioner or hangman, who executed (supplicio afficiebat) slaves, and persons of the lowest rank; for slaves and freedmen were punished in a manner different from freeborn citizens, Tacit. Annal. iii. 50. The carnifex was of servile condition, and held in such contempt that he was not permitted to reside within the city, Cic. pro Rabir. 5., but lived without the Porta Metia, or Esquilina, Plaut. Pseud. i. 3. v. 98., near the place destined for the punishment of slaves (juxta locum servilibus pœnis sepositum, Tac Annal. xv. 60.) called Sestertium, Plutarch in Galb., where were erected crosses and gibbets (cruces et patibula, Tac. Annal. xiv. 33.), and where also the bodies of slaves were burnt, Plaut. Cas. ii. 6. v. 2., or thrown out unburied, Hor. Epod. v. 99.

Some think that the carnifex was anciently keeper of the prison