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as, Ap. Appius; Cn. Cneius; Sp. Spurius; Ti. Tiberius; and sometimes with three, as Mam. Mamercus; Ser. Servius; Sex. Sextus.

The NOMEN was put after the Prænomen, and marked the gens, and commonly ended in ius; as, Cornelius, Fabius, Tullius, Julius, Octavius, &c.

The COGNOMEN was put last, and marked the familia; as, Cicero, Cæsar, &c.

Thus, in Publius Cornelius Scipio, Publius is the Prænomen; Cornelius, the Nomen; and Scipio, the Cognomen.

Some gentes seem to have had no surname; as the Marian; thus, C. Marius, Q. Sertorius, L. Mummius, Plutarch. in Mario. Gens and familia seem sometimes to be put the one for the other: thus, Fabia gens, v. Familia, Liv. ii. 49.

Sometimes there was also a fourth name, called the AGNOMEN or Cognomen, added from some illustrious action or remarkable event. Thus Scipio was named Africanus, from the conquest of Carthage and Africa. On a similar account his brother Lucius Cornelius Scipio was named Asiaticus. So Quintus Fabius Maximus was called Cunctator, from his checking the impetuosity of Hannibal by declining battle. We find likewise a second Agnomen, or Cognomen, added; thus, the latter Publius Cornelius Scipio Africanus is called Æmilianus, because he was the son of L. Æmilius Paulus, and adopted by the son of the great Scipio, who had no male children of his own. But he is commonly called by authors Africanus Minor, to distinguish him from the former Scipio Africanus.

The Romans at first seem to have had but one name; as, Romulus, Remus, &c. or two; as, Numa Pompilius, Tullus Hostilius, Ancus Martius, Tarquinius Priscus, Servius Tullius, Sextus Tarquinius. But when they were divided into tribes or clans and families (in gentes et familias), they began commonly to have three; as, L. Junius Brutus, M. Valerius Poplicola, &c.

The three names, however, were not always used; commonly two, and sometimes only one, namely, the surname, Sall. Cat. 17. Cic. Epist. passim. But in speaking to any one, the prænomen was generally used, as being peculiar to citizens; for slaves had no prænomen. Hence, Gaudent prænomine molles auriculæ, Hor. Sat. ii. 5. 32. *

The surnames were derived from various circumstances; either from some quality of the mind, as, Cato from wisdom, i. e. Catus, wise, Cic. de Sen. 2. &c. or from the habit of the body, as, Calvus, Crassus, Macer, &c. or from cultivating particular fruits, as, Lentulus, Piso, Cicero, &c. Certain surnames sometimes gave occasion to jests and witty allusions; thus, Asina, Hor. Ep. i. 13. 9. So, Serranus Calatinus, Cic. pro Sext. 33. Hence also in a different sense Virgil says, Vel te sulco, Serrane, serentem, Æn. vi. 844. for Q. Cincinnatus was called SERRANUS, because the ambassadors from the senate found him sowing, when they brought him notice that he was made dictator, Plin. xviii. 3.

Hence Juvenal, in speaking of the humiliating treatment with which parasites met, tells one of them that he would be turned out of doors, if he should remonstrate against it, like a freeman (or one who had got three names):

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"Si quid tentaveris unquam
Hiscere, tanquam habeas tria nomina.” -v. 126, 127.

LIBERI - INGENUI

LIBERTI

LIBERTINI.

31

The Prænomen used to be given to boys, on the 9th day, which was called dies lustricus, or the day of purification, when certain religious ceremonies were performed, Macrob. Sat. i. 16. Suet. Ner. 6. [to girls on the 8th day.] The eldest son of the family usually got the Prænomen of his father; the rest were named from their uncles or other relations.

When there was only one daughter in a family, she used to be called from the name of the gens; thus, Tullia, the daughter of Cicero; Julia, the daughter of Cæsar; Octavia, the sister of Augustus, &c.; and they retained the same name after they were married. When there were two daughters, the one was called Major and the other Minor; thus, Cornelia Major, Cornelia Minor. If there were more than two, they were distinguished by their number; thus, Prima, Secunda, Tertia, Quarta, Quinta, &c. Varro de Lat. Ling. viii. 38. Suet. Jul. 50. Or more softly, Tertulla, Quartilla, Quintilla, &c. Cic. Att. xiv. 20. Women seem anciently to have also had prænomens, which were marked with inverted letters; thus, for Caia, 7 for Lucia, &c.

During the flourishing state of the republic, the names of the gentes, and surnames of the familia, always remained fixed and certain. They were common to all the children of a family, and descended to their posterity. But after the subversion of liberty they were changed and confounded.

Those were called LIBERI, free, who had the power of doing what they pleased. Those who were born of parents who had been always free, were called INGENUI. Slaves made free were called LIBERTI and LIBERTINI. They were called Liberti in relation to their masters, and Libertini in relation to freeborn citizens; thus, Libertus meus, libertus Cæsaris, and not libertinus: but libertinus homo, i. e. non ingenuus. Servus cum manu mittitur, fit libertinus (non libertus), Quinctil. viii. 3. 27.

On

Some think that Libertini were the sons of the Liberti, from Suetonius, Claud. 24. who says that they were thus called anciently: so Isidor. ix. 4.; but this distinction never occurs in the classics.* the contrary, we find both words applied to the same person in writers who flourished in different ages, Plaut. Mil. Glor. iv. 1. 15, 16. Cic. in Verr. i. 47. Those whom Cicero, de Orat. i. 9. calls Libertini, Livy makes qui servitutem servissent, xlv. 15. Hence Seneca often contrasts Servi et Liberi, Ingenui et Libertini, de Vit. Beat. 24. Ep. 31. &c.

SLAVES.+

MEN became slaves among the Romans, by being taken in war ‡, by sale, by way of punishment, or by being born in a state of servitude, (Servi aut nascebantur aut fiebant.)

1. Those enemies who voluntarily laid down their arms and sur

Hor. (Epist. i. 20. 20. Sat. i. 6. 6.) calls himself Libertino patre natum, i. e. the son of a freedman.

+ For a fuller discussion of this subject, the reader is referred to Blair's Inquiry into the state of slavery among the Romans.

‡ Prisoners taken in civil wars were not dealt with as slaves.

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rendered themselves, retained the rights of freedom, and were called DEDITITII, Liv. vii. 31. Cæs. i. 27. But those taken in the field, or in the storming of cities, were sold by auction (sub corona, as it was termed, Liv. v. 22. &c. because they wore a crown [or chaplet] when sold; or sub hasta, because a spear was set up where the crier or auctioneer stood). They were called SERVI (quod essent bello servati), Isidor. ix. 4. or MANCIPIA (quasi manu capti), Varr. L. L. v. 8.†

2. There was a continual market for slaves at Rome. Those who dealt in that trade (MANGONES vel VENALITII, Cic. Orat. 7. qui venales habebant, Plaut. Trin. ii. 2. 51.) brought them thither from various countries. The seller was bound to promise for the soundness of his slaves, and not to conceal their faults, Horat. Sat. ii. 3. 285. Hence they were commonly exposed to sale (producebantur) naked; and they carried a scroll (titulus vel inscriptio) hanging at their necks, on which their good and bad qualities were specified, Gell. iv. 2. If the seller gave a false account, he was bound to make up the loss, Cic. Off. iii. 16, 17. or in some cases to take back the slave, Ibid. 23. Those whom the seller would not warrant (præstare) were sold with a kind of cap on their head (pileati, Gell. vii. 4.).

Those brought from beyond seas had their feet whitened with chalk (cretatis v. gypsatis pedibus, Plin. Nat. Hist. xxxv. 17, 18. s. 58.

"Et præbere caput dominâ venale sub hastâ. (Juv. iii. 33).” — T. +"A few examples will suffice to show how abundant a supply of bondsmen was obtained, by the Romans, in their wars. After the fall of the Samnites at Aquilonia, 2,553,000 (or 2,033,000) pieces of brass were realised by the sale of prisoners, who amounted to about 36,000. (Livy x. 46.) The number of the people of Epirus taken and sold for behoof of the army, under Paulus Æmilius, was 150,000. On the descent of the Romans upon Africa, in the first Punic war, they took 20,000 prisoners. On the great victory of Marius and Catulus over the Cimbri, 60,000 were captured. When Pindenissus was taken by Cicero, the inhabitants were sold for more than 100,000l. (Cic. ad Att. v. 20.) Augustus, having overcome the Salassi, sold as slaves 36,000, of whom 8000 were capable of bearing arms. (Suet. Aug. 21.)" — Blair, p. 19. "The profits of the dealers who bought up such slaves must have been enormous. In the camp of Lucullus, in Pontus, a man might be purchased for three shillings, while the lowest price at Rome was, perhaps, nearly 15l.”. - P. 29.

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The stand or stall where slaves were exposed to sale, was called catasta, Tibull. ii. 6. 41. Pers. Sat. vi. 77. Martial. Ep. vi. 29. The principal slavemarkets were in the Campus Martius, and in the Thuscus Vicus, near the Temple of Castor.

"Scythia was so great a magazine for slaves, that Scythian almost became another word for slave. The Roman slave trade was chiefly carried on at Delos. That island rose into importance as a commercial place after the fall of Corinth. Its port became proverbial for such traffic, and was capable of importing and reexporting 10,000 slaves in a single day. The Cilician pirates made Delos the great staple for the sale of their captives. It ceased to be a great mart after the Mithridatic war. Various provinces of Asia, but, most of all, Phrygia and Syria, furnished slaves to Rome. [Hence Syri venales, Cic. de Orat. ii. 66.] The Getæ came from the country a little to the eastward of Pontus. The Davi are thought, by Strabo, to be the same with the German Daci; but Salmasius shows, that the former were more probably an Oriental race. Alexandria appears to have been a considerable place of sale for natives of the neighbouring districts of Egypt. Thrace was the parent country of a number of slaves; and a considerable slave trade was carried on, in the Augustan age, between the inhabitants of the east coast of Italy and the Illyrians; the Galatians, too, were great slave dealers at a later period." Blair, p. 25.

VENALES

VERNE- FAMILIA.

33

Tibull. ii. 3. 64.) and their ears bored, (auribus perforatis,) Juvenal. i. 104. * Sometimes slaves were sold on that condition, that if they did not please they should be returned (redhiberentur) within a limited time, [six months, according to the edicts of the Ediles,] Cic. Off. iii. 24. Plaut. Most. iii. 2. 113. Festus. Foreign slaves, when first brought to the city, were called VENALES, or SERVI NOVICII, Cic. pro Quinct. 6. Plin. Ep. i. 21. Quinctilian. i. 12. 2. viii. 2. 8. Slaves who had served long, and hence were become artful, veteratores, Terent. Heaut. v. 1. 16.

It was not lawful for free-born citizens among the Romans, as among other nations, to sell themselves for slaves. Much less was it allowed any other person to sell free men.+ But as this gave occasion to certain frauds, it was ordained by a decree of the senate, that those [being 20 years of age] who allowed themselves to be sold for the sake of sharing the price, should remain in slavery. Fathers might, indeed, sell their children for slaves, [this was restricted to unmarried sons,] but these did not on that account entirely lose the rights of citizens; for when freed from their slavery, they were held as Ingenui, not Libertini. The same was the case with insolvent debtors, who were given up as slaves to their creditors, (in servitutem creditoribus addicti,) Quinctilian. vi. 3. 26. v. 10. 60.

3. Criminals were often reduced to slavery, by way of punishment. Thus those who had neglected to get themselves enrolled in the Censor's books, or refused to enlist, (qui censum aut militiam subterfugerant,) had their goods confiscated; and, after being scourged, were sold beyond the Tiber, Cic. pro Cacina, 34. Those condemned to the mines, or to fight with wild beasts, or to any extreme punishment, were first deprived of liberty, and, by a fiction of law, termed slaves of punishment (servi pænæ fingebantur).

4. The children of any female slave became the slaves of her master. There was no regular marriage among slaves, but their connection was called CONTUBERNIUM, and themselves, Contubernales. Those slaves who were born in the house of their masters, were called VERNÆ, or Vernaculi; hence lingua vernacula, v. -aris, one's mother tongue. These slaves were more petulant than others, because they were commonly more indulged, Horat. Sat. ii. 6. 66.

The whole company of slaves in one house, was called FAMILIA, Nep. Att. 13. Cic. Paradox. v. 2. (Familia constat ex servis pluribus, Cic. Cæcin. 19. Quindecim liberi homines, populus est; totidem servi, familia §; totidem vincti, ergastulum, Apulei. Apol.) and the slaves,

• The passage alluded to in Juvenal would hardly seem to bear out the assertion, that the ears of all such slaves were bored. The satirist is introducing an enfranchised slave, born near the Euphrates, and now boasting of the immense wealth that he has amassed. "Quamvis Natus ad Eufratem, molles quod in aure fenestræ Arguerint, licet ipse negem." Now, the ears of all slaves in the East were bored as a mark of their servitude. They wore bits of go.d by way of ear-rings. The epithet molles may perhaps intimate, says Madan, that this custom was looked upon at Rome (as among us) as a mark of effeminacy.

This is said to have been first made law by Hadrian.

"This must have sunk into a mere form, after the extension of the Roman territories." Blair, p. 41.

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"Seneca, however, uses the word familia in speaking of a set of eleven. Epist. 27." Blair, p. 13.

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Familiares, Cic. pro Col. 23. Plaut. Amphit. Prol. 127. Hence familia philosophorum, sects, Cic. Fin. iv. 18. Divin. ii. 1. Att. ii. 16. Sententia quæ familiam ducit, HONESTUM QUOD sit, id esse solUM BONUM; the chief maxim of the Stoics, Id. Fin. ii. 16. Lucius familiam ducit, is the chief of the sect, Id. Phil. v. 11. Accedit etiam,

quod familiam ducit, &c. is the chief ground of praise, Fam. vii. 5.

The proprietor of slaves was called DOMINUS, Terent. Eun. iii. 2. 23. whence this word was put for a tyrant, Liv. ii. 60. On this account, Augustus refused the name, Suet. Aug. 53. So Tiberius, Id. 27. Tacit. Annal. ii. 27.

Slaves not only did all domestic services, but were likewise employed in various trades and manufactures. + Such as had a genius for it, were sometimes instructed in literature and the liberal arts, (artibus ingenuis, liberalibus v. honestis, Cic.) Horat. Ep. ii. 2.7. Some of these were sold at a great price, Plin. vii. 39. s. 40. Senec. Ep. 27 Suet. Jul. 47. Cic. Rosc. Com. 10. Hence arose a principal part of the immense wealth of Crassus, Plutarch. in vita ejus. ‡

Slaves employed to accompany boys to and from school, were called PÆDAGOGI; and the part of the house where those young slaves stayed who were instructed in literature, (literæ serviles, Senec. Ep. 88.) was called PÆDAGOGIUM, Plin. Ep. vii. 27. §

Slaves were promoted according to their behaviour: as from being a drudge or mean slave in town (Mediastinus), to be an overseer in the country (Villicus), Horat. Ep. i. 14.

The country farms of the wealthy Romans in later times were cultivated chiefly by slaves, Plin. xviii. 3. But there were also free men who wrought for hire, as among us (MERCENARII), Cic. Off. i. 13. pro Cacin. 59.

Among the Romans, masters had an absolute power over their slaves. They might scourge or put them to death at pleasure, Juvenal. Sat. vi. 219. This right was exercised with so great cruelty, especially in the corrupt ages of the republic, that laws were made at different times to restrain it. The lash was the common punish

Also famuli and famulitü, Macrob. Sat. i. 2.

"It was very common for masters to let out their slaves for hire; as well as to sell the productions of their art and industry. Crassus derived a great revenue from the hire of his slave builders; and Atticus gained much emolument from the sale of the copies of manuscripts made by his learned slaves. Sometimes a slave was allowed to live apart, and to exert his talents in any calling, on condition of bringing in to his master the whole, or a certain proportion of his gains.”— Blair, p. 106. "Cicero seems to say, that a good workman might perhaps get 12 asses, or 10d. a day, but not more in his age: (pro Q. Roscio, 10.) This rate of hire would give 141. Os. 6d. in the working year of 330 days." - P. 157.

His band of architects and masons alone exceeded 500.

"It was at all times, after the introduction of luxury, fashionable to go abroad attended by a great train of slaves. Horace (1 Sat. iii. 11.) mentions such a troop consisting of 200, and considers ten a very small retinue.' Blair, p. 13.

"The slave was also little protected from the violence of others. A law of the Twelve Tables, which imposed fines upon those guilty of assault, fixed the amount, in case of a slave being the party hurt, at half that threatened when a freeman was the sufferer; and the rates were so trifling, that they soon ceased to operate as a punishment."— Blair, p. 55. "After some restraint had been put upon the arbitrary exertion of domestic authority, the court of the Præfect of the city was directed, by Augustus (Tac. Ann. vi. 11.) to entertain the mutual com

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