1135 Reply to a Query on the Sabbath. Mosaic dispensation, that has given rise to diversities of opinion amongst theologians. Our way, I presume, is now prepared for discussing the point after which Gamma inquires. As we have before observed, what was typical in the seventh-day sabbath, has passed away by virtue of its fulfilment in Christ. "Let no man, therefore, judge you in meat, or in drink, or in respect of an holy-day, or of the new-moon, or of the sabbathdays. Which are a shadow of things to come, but the body is of Christ," Col. iii. 16, 17. But the question returns, Has the moral obligation of the seventh-day sabbath been abrogated? We hope that we have proved its obligation, to the entire satisfaction of every unprejudiced mind. Now, if the blessings of creation did morally oblige to the devotion of a seventh part of our time to the service of God, surely the infinite blessings of redemption have multiplied our obligations indefinitely. We therefore confidently infer, there still remains the observance of a sabbath to the Lord. Christ when on earth declared himself to be Lord of the sabbath; perhaps this occasional declaration of his authority, was indicative of the change he was about to make of the day of its observance: but while he was on earth, we know of no positive command that Christ gave to his disciples, for the observance of the first day of the week as a sabbath; but the fact that he did so, we gather from their subsequent conduct, for we cannot admit a doubt that they imposed any thing upon the first churches for which they had not the authority of Christ. Before his ascension, he commissioned and qualified his Apostles, "to teach and disciple all nations, teaching them to observe all things whatsoever he had commanded them." For after his resurrection, "he was seen of them forty days, speaking of the things pertaining to the kingdom of God:" now the things they were to teach, were the commandments of Christ; this was the extent of their commission; and to preserve them from every thing contrary to his will, the Spirit was given, as a monitor to them in every supposable case. The Apostles, thus qualified, went forth to evangelize the world; under these circumstances, will it not be admitted, 1136 that what they delivered in precept, and what they established in practice, must be of equal authority? Few, indeed, doubt the authority of their precepts, who at the same time pay no attention to the practice of the first churches. But that the opinion of the Apostle Paul was very different, we know of a certainty, for he praises the Thessalonians for being followers of the churches of God, which in Judea are in Christ Jesus, 1 Thess. ii. 14.; and in 1 Cor. xi. 16. he there appeals to the example of the churches as a general principle. "But if any man seem to be contentious, we have no such custom, neither the churches of God." On this principle we wish to rest the universal obligation of the sabbath of the first day of the week. The evidence that the apostolic churches statedly observed the first day as a sabbath, is abundant and satisfactory; see Acts xx. 7: also ii. 42. 1 Cor. xvi. 2. The Apostle John, in the book of Revelation, i. 10. emphatically terms it the Lord's day; this not only intimates the authority of Christ for so naming it, but also that the churches understood the designation, previous to the Apostles having written to them; and it is apparent, that the term not only implies that the Lord rose from the dead on that day, but that the churches kept the day sacred as a memorial of his resurrection. It is that portion of time which he has called his own, to be set apart to commemorate the completion of a greater work than that of creation; and certainly its being a greater work, establishes the propriety of abolishing the seventh day, and of instituting the first for a superior purpose; for all things, both in creation and providence, do, and must, subserve the interests of the Redeemer's kingdom. On the first day he rose from the dead a triumphant Saviour, having finished the great work of redemption. This was the day of his triumph; and shall we not keep it an holy festival to the Lord, when every return of the day is calculated to cheer our minds with the certainty of our own resurrection? for our Lord has risen as the first-fruits, afterwards they that are Christ's at his coming. Through his resurrection which we commemorate on this day, we are begotten to a lively hope of entering into the heavenly rest; and observing the first day in faith, we 1137 Chemical Essays. enjoy the earnest of that rest that re- | mains for the people of God. 1138 absorbed different quantities of caloric: the water will have absorbed more than the oil, and the oil more than the mercury. By exposing other bodies to measured quantities of caloric, we obtain different results. That quantity which elevates one body one degree only, will elevate another body ten or twenty degrees. Dr. BLACK first established the opinion, that the quantities of caloric which heterogeneous bodies contain at the same temperature, are proportioned neither to their weight nor their volumes, but are From the above reasons we would infer, as from the most certain data, the indispensable obligations upon all Christians to observe the first day of the week sacred to the service of God; for they who presume to controvert the known and established practice of the apostolic churches, oppose that order which inspiration dictated; they are hostile to the Apostles, and rebellious against the authority of the King of Zion. But it is a pleasing consideration, that however powerful this hos-in proportion regulated by the force of tility may now be, the time is fast approaching, when every vestige of the man of sin shall be destroyed by the breath of his mouth and brightness of his coming. If the modern had been more observant of the practices of the primitive churches, the special duties of the first day could not have fallen into such total disregard, neither would the diversity of orders which are so anomalous, have had any existence. The judgment of Christians would have been established by a reference to examples, where precept were not given; but now they are agitated by the conflicting sentiments of the titled and the learned, who, on the shallow argument of expediency, have rejected the plain and apposite example of the apostolic churches; so that on these points the Christian world exhibits a perfect chaos. How consummate the dissimilarity to the unity the apostle describes: "There is one body, and one spirit, as ye are called in one hope of your calling; one Lord, one faith, one baptism.' That this unity may speedily take the place of every commandment of men, in the Christian churches, is, Sir, the prayer of your obedient servant, Sunderland, Oct. 15th, 1821. AMICUS. CHEMICAL ESSAYS.-ESSAY V. (Caloric, concluded from col. 797.) Of the comparative quantities of Caloric which bodies contain. THE capacities of homogeneous bo- | dies for caloric, are according to their temperatures and quantities of matter. This however is not the case with heterogeneous bodies. If oil, mercury, and water, be exposed to certain degrees of caloric, they all arrive at a common temperature; but it will be found that in rising to this, they have that attraction which they have for this principle. If equal weights of water, of glass, of tin, of copper, and of lead, be subjected to experiments, we find that they do not at the same temperature contain the same quantities of caloric. If we wish to determine the quantities of caloric which bodies contain, it will be necessary to mix together equal weights of two different kinds of matter at different temperatures, and observe the temperature which results from their mixture. If we make use of the same kind of matter, at different degrees of temperature, the arithmetical medium between the two temperatures will be produced. If, for instance, we mix one pint of water at 120°, and another pint of the same fluid at 2120, the temperature resulting from their mixture will be 166°. But when the experiment is made with two different bodies, the temperature produced is never the arithmetical mean of the two temperatures. Thus, if one pound of water at 166°, be mixed with one pound of mercury at 40°, the resulting temperature is not the mean 98°, but is not less than 152°; of course the water is only reduced four degrees, whilst the loss of these four degrees has been sufficient to elevate the mercury to 152°. The quantity of caloric in water, at any point in the scale of heat, is to that contained in the same weight of mercury, as 28 to 1. It is observed, that those bodies which contain the least quantity of caloric at a given temperature, or, in other words, have the least capacity, are those of greatest density, such as the metals, and their more dense combinations ; and on the other hand, substances of the greatest rarity, the elastic fluids and gases, are those which have the greatest capacities for caloric. When any species of air is rarefied by the air 1139 .... Chemical Essays. 1140 Of the Variations of Temperature, and the Applications of these to Practical Chemistry. pump, its temperature falls, obviously this caloric has no influence in raising from the increased rarity enabling the the temperature of the substances air to contain a larger quantity of ca- which undergo these changes. When loric at a certain temperature, and this the experiment is reversed, that caloric caloric not being absorbed by the sur- which was absorbed becomes disenrounding bodies, the air suffering rare-gaged, and is rendered sensible. faction must be reduced. By compressing any aeriform fluid, caloric is extricated, the capacity being diminished by the reduction of volume. By producing increased density in different bodies, their capacities for caloric are diminished. Thus, if sulphuric acid and water be combined together, an increase of density takes place, and consequently a diminution of capacity; a considerable quantity of caloric is at the same time evolved. It is necessary to observe, that different forms of the same body contain different quantities of caloric: a body in the form of a fluid contains more caloric than a body in the form of a solid; and a body in the form of a gas, contains more than a liquid body. This gives rise to what is called latent heat. Dr. Black first discovered that bodies in different forms took up different quantities of caloric. This fact is established from the phenomena attending liquefaction and vaporization. If, for instance, ice below 32° is exposed to a warm atmosphere, it gradually rises until it reaches that degree, after which it becomes stationary until the whole of the ice is melted. Still, however, caloric is communicated to it; and that this caloric is absorbed by it, is proved by a reduction of the temperature of the sorrounding air. In this case, therefore, a quantity of caloric disappears, or becomes latent, in the water. This is accounted for upon the supposition that water has a greater capacity for caloric than ice, inasmuch as the former is in a state of greater density than the latter. The same phenomenon is observed, if a liquid be converted into a state of vapour. If we apply caloric to water, its temperature is gradually raised until it reaches 2120. At this temperature it continues stationary, if its surface be exposed to the air, and is converted into vapour. Vapour has a greater capacity for caloric than water, in consequence of which it absorbs the superabundant heat, and prevents any further increase of temperature. These facts prove that when bodies are converted from a solid into a fluid form, or from a fluid into an aerial state, they absorb caloric, but that This subject will conclude the chemical history of caloric. Caloric, as we have before observed, has a tendency to produce an equilibrium of temperature in all bodies; and this equilibrium would certainly take place, were it not counteracted by different causes. As every part of the earth is not exposed to the same action of the solar rays, it is obvious that there will be variations of temperature in different climates; the variations depend chiefly upon the latitude of the country, although they are somewhat influenced by elevation and distance from the sea. The average annual heat in the torrid zone, is from 75o to 80°; in moderate climates 50° or 52o, and towards the polar regions 36". The extremes over the whole globe extend from a few degrees above 100° of Fahrenheit, to 50° below the zero or commencement of the same scale. In tropical climates, the heat in the shade occasionally rises to 105° or even 110°. In Siberia and Hudson's Bay, the temperature is sufficiently low to freeze quicksilver. At Hudson Bay, the spirit thermometer is said to have stood at 50° in the open air. The sources of heat, under the control of art, are, the rays of the sun, the electrical and galvanic fluids, combustion, condensation, friction, and percussion. By a lens, or concave mirror, the solar rays are collected, and intense heat may be produced. By large glasses, sufficient heat is excited to melt several of the metals, and to produce combustion in several combustible bodies. The electric fluid is capable of producing a sudden and very great heat. On this account it is made use of to combine different gases, which unite at a high temperature. Galvanism is capable of exciting heat, hence it is frequently made use of to fuse the most incombustible substances. Combustion is the most common source of heat for the purpose of chemistry, and for mechanical operations. Combustion arises from the oxygen of the 1141 ....... Wise Mayor of Lancaster. 1142 atmosphere combining with the com- of Cockram, (Cockerham) near Lanbustible body at elevated tempera- caster, along with all other churchwartures; the combination is attended dens, to set up a rood (that is, a with condensation, and of course calo- wooden figure of a man) both well faric is evolved; combustion therefore is voured and of tall stature, as usual in absolutely dependent upon a due sup- all churches. The churchwardens ply of atmospheric air, or oxygen gas: made their bargain, and agreed to give the more freely the air is supplied, the a price to one (most probably a Lanmore rapid is the combustion. The caster carpenter) that could cunningly construction of furnaces is founded on carve, and paint such idols for the this supply of air, inasmuch as in- framing of their rood; who, according flammable matter cannot burn without to his promise, made them one, and set its free access. The production of heat it up in their church. This done, the from condensation, is most satisfacto- carpenter demanded his money; but rily exemplified in substances which they, disliking his workmanship, refusare highly compressible and elastic, ed to pay him; whereupon he arrested consequently in acriform fluids. By them, and the matter was brought becondensing an aeriform body, its tem- fore the mayor of Lancaster, who was perature is reduced, and a quantity of a very fit man for such a purpose, and caloric is extricated. The mixture of an old favourer of the gospel, which was sulphuric acid with water, which we rare in that country: then the carver have alluded to, is another instance of began to declare how they covenanted the extrication of heat by condensation. with him for making the rood, with By a very sudden condensation, a high the appurtenances ready carved, and temperature, equal even to ignition, set up in their church; which he, acmay be produced. It was observed, cording to his promise, had done: now that a luminous appearance is some- demanding his money, they refused to times produced by the discharge of an pay him.—Mayor. Is this true, masair-gun in the dark. The experiment ter churchwardens ?"-Churchwardens. was repeated before the French Na-"Yea, Sir.”—Mayor. 'Why do you tional Institute. From the air rapidly not pay the old man his due ?"— compressed in the ball of an air-gun, Churchwardens. "An' it please you, so much heat was disengaged from the measter mayor, because the rood we first stroke of the piston, as to set fire had before was a well-favoured man, to a piece of fungus-match placed with- and he promised to make us such anin the pump. Friction and percussion other; but this he has set up now is the are also productive of increased tem- worst favoured that your worship ever perature. Two pieces of hard wood set your eyes on, gaping and grinning rubbed against each other, are so much in such sort that none of our children heated as to be kindled. This method dare once look at it."-Mayor. "I is frequently adopted by savage na- think it good enough for the purpose: tions. The friction on the axle of a and, master wardens, howsoever you loaded carriage, or that which is pro- like the rood, or it is like you, the duced by the rapid revolution of a rope poor man's labour hath been nevertheround a pulley, is sometimes so great less, and it is a pity he should have as to produce fire. The heat from per- any hinderance or loss thereby. Therecussion is, no doubt, produced in the fore, I tell you, pay him the money same manner as that of friction. It is you promised: go your ways home and easily carried to the same extent. By look at it, and if it will not serve for a hammering a piece of iron on the an- god, make no more to do, but clap a vil, ignition may be produced; and the pair of horns on his head, and so he will sparks which are produced by striking make an excellent devil." This the a piece of steel against flint, are par- parishioners took well-the poor man ticles of steel raised to a state of ig- had his money-divers laughed thereat nition by combining at a high tempe--but so did not the Babylonish priests. rature with the air of the atmosphere. -Fox's History of Martyrs. 66 WISE MAYOR OF LANCASTER. THE Catholic Bishops, in 1554, commanded the churchwardens of the town PHENICIAN NAVIGATORS. SOME workmen recently digging a cave in the environs of the Cape of 1143 On the Origin of Human Knowledge.—Review. 1144 Good Hope, discovered the hull of a | REVIEW.-Eternal Punishment proved vessel, built of cedar, and supposed to be the remains of a Phenician galley. Should this conjecture be verified, it will prove beyond all contradiction the truth of what Herodotus has stated, that these adventurous Tyrians had reached the southern extremity of Africa, upwards of 2000 years before this stormy Cape was doubled by Vasco de Gama, in 1497.-A circumstance of so singular a nature will not long remain in uncertainty. As a curiosity, it would be well worth importing into Europe, to enrich the collections, if not the cabinets, of the antiquarians. ON THE ORIGIN OF HUMAN KNOW- (Concluded from col. 1046.) to be not Suffering, but Privation, and IT is a painful, and yet an amusing Spinoza and Hobbes undertook to prove that there is no God; and Mr. Harris, a Unitarian minister now in Liverpool, delivered lectures some months since, to prove the non-existence of the Devil. Dean Berkeley denied the existence of the material world, and David Hume the reality of spirits. Dr. Priestley, and some more modern divines, have treated the immateriality of the human soul with something like contempt; and, to finish this climax of speculative absurdity, the author of the work before us boldly asserts, that the eternal punishment threatened in the sacred writings consists not in suffering, but in a privation of existence; and that the soul's immortality, instead of resulting from that constitution of being which the Almighty primarily connected with its essence, is dependent On this subject but one topic more remains to be noticed, that is, the conduct of the mind in its conception of spiritual objects; and on this it is necessary to be very brief. Those persons who have acquired the habit of attending to the action of their minds, and who are capable of separating and distinguishing its varied operations, may easily satisfy themselves that their most refined notions of the spiritual world, are not formed without the aid of those impressions produced by the things of time and sense. But to as-upon spiritual regeneration. certain the general operations of the Common charity would lead us to human intellect in this department of suppose, that all these metaphysical knowledge, it is necessary to investi- speculators conceive their theories to gate the monuments it has left in every be correct, and their reasonings conspecies of mental picture. And here a │clusive; but we must be indebted to wide field presents itself; whatever something more liberal than charity, poets have sung, or painters depicted, before we can conceive that all these or philosophers written, or divines wild reveries can be true. Were we preached, is relevant to the subject in to give to their various authors, as hand. Each of these sources would much credit for the legitimacy of their furnish more matter than could well be arguments, as we are disposed to compressed in a single article for your allow them on the ground of charity Magazine; the reader is therefore re-for their sincerity, our minds would quested to examine them at his lei-be reduced to a more disordered consure, he will then find, that nothing in-dition than that in which the primortelligible has yet been produced in re-dials of matter appeared, before ference to spiritual things, without its containing some allusion to the sensible objects of nature, or to the qualities, feelings, or actions, of the human mind. I now take my leave of your sensible correspondent, whose communication produced the preceding remarks, And am, Sir, your's, respectfully, S. | "the heavens and earth rose out of chaos." Admitting the various theories to be genuine, of which we have just taken a transient survey, the belief will be induced, that there is no God, no Devil, no Material World, no Spirit; that the Human Soul is neither Immaterial nor Immortal; and, that eternal sufferings consist in eternal |