Teachers should notice that a more satisfactory result for the specific heat is obtained where a fairly large mass-say, 100 grams of the substance is used, and, moreover, should avoid the use of tacks or pieces of wire, as the cooling surface is excessive. Students may also determine the temperature of a muffle furnace or blowpipe by means of a calorimetric method, using a brass disc 3 inches diameter x inch thick, and a large copper calorimeter 4 inches height x 3 inches diameter (2s., Jackson).

For the determination of the specific heat of liquids by the cooling method a special apparatus will be required. The calorimeters AA (see Fig. 3) are each 2 inches height x inch diameter, and are made of aluminium (price Is. 3d., London Aluminium Company, Knightrider Street, London, E.C.). The cooling determination is performed in an inner zinc vessel B (5 inches x 4 inches x 3 inches) supported on four metal rods inside a larger zinc trough C (8 inches x 5 inches x 6 inches), the space between the two vessels being filled with ice or cold water. A wooden lid, lined inside with felt, is fitted over the top, and two holes 3 inch in diameter and 24 inches apart serve for the insertion of thermometers into the calorimeters. The complete apparatus costs 15s. (Cussons). The determination may also be performed in one of the calorimeter enclosures for the specific heat of solids, using one liquid at a time.

Of course it is necessary that all liquids in common use for calorimetric experiments-e.g., glycerine, turpentine, castor oil, methylated spirits, benzol, aniline-should have their specific heats. determined from time to time, since the specific heat varies considerably with the amount of water

or other impurities present. As a general rule, the commercial liquids will have a higher specific heat than the pure liquids. Aniline is found to absorb water slightly, and hence there will be a corresponding rise in its specific heat. For testing purposes we require an instrument analogous to the hydrometer, which will give the value of the specific heat for any liquid correct to the second decimal place.

Andrews' calorifer (Fig. 4), which will fulfil the above requirements, consists of a large glass bulb A (about 47 cms. in diameter) filled with mercury, and connected with a stem 25 cms. long, on which are the smaller bulbs B and C. The calorifer is suspended in a dry metal can and heated until the mercury appears above the upper mark a on the stem. It is now immersed in a known quantity of water contained in a calorimeter. The heat given out by the mercury in falling from a to b can be determined once for all. The calorifer is again heated to the upper mark a, and immersed in the same number of grams of the liquid under test. With the instrument in use here 300 grams of the given liquid are employed and the specific heat calculated from the simple formula s = = -0.03 where s specific heat, t rise in temperature of liquid, as measured by a centigrade thermometer. Further, when once the constants of the instrument are determined a curve may be plotted for definite values of t (e.g., taking t = 6°, 8°, 10°, .. 18°, and obtaining the corresponding values S == 097, 0·83, 0·72,

6

027). The curve is a portion of a rectangular hyperbola, and from it

serves to pump in the air, while a manometer E, about 25in. in height, and filled with castor oil, measures the pressure inside the carboy. The price of the apparatus is 1 10s. (Cussons).

Of other advanced pieces of apparatus dealing with calorimetry the following deserve mention:Lewis Thompson's Fuel Tester (price £5 10s.), P. Harris, Birmingham; Regnault's apparatus for the specific heat of a gas at constant pressure (price £13), Max Kohl; and Favre & Silbermann's calorimeter for the heat of combination (price £4), Max Kohl. The money would be well spent in acquiring these latter instruments, provided that the course in practical heat is used as a practical course in elementary steam, thus extending the utility of the subject to students of physics, chemistry, and engineering.

With regard to duplication of apparatus, I should recommend ten 100° C. thermometers, two steam heaters, and six calorimeters and enclosures, for a class of twenty students, the remaining pieces of apparatus being bought singly as required.

FIG. 6.-Bunsen's ice calorimeter.

ratus will be found to give trustworthy results (price £2 15s., Max Kohl; agents, Messrs. Isenthal and Co., Mortimer Street, London), the only objection to the apparatus being that it is made entirely of glass, and is therefore likely to suffer at the hands of inexperienced students.

Considering the low price (3s.) of Bunsen's ice calorimeter, it is rather surprising to find it so neglected in calorimetric work, since its accuracy is unquestioned. In Fig. 6 is shown a simple method of measuring the decrease in volume of the melting ice by means of the barometer tubing F G and the metric scale SS. The great difficulty lies in filling the outer tube B with pure distilled water, but detailed instructions are given in most textbooks, and when once filled the instrument may be used for some time.

FIG. 7.-Apparatus for the determination of the ratio (7) of the specific

beats of a gas.

Although strictly not included in the subject of calorimetry, the determination of the ratio (y) of the specific heats of a gas may be introduced as an advanced experiment. The apparatus (Fig. 7) The apparatus (Fig. 7) consists of a carboy, the neck of which is fitted with a metal tube and a valve D. A pneumatic tyre valve B is soldered on the metal tube, and

THE ASSOCIATION OF ASSISTANTMISTRESSES IN PUBLIC SECONDARY SCHOOLS.

TH

HE idea of an Association of Assistantmistresses was suggested in 1883, and was at once welcomed by many ardent teachers who had felt the need of greater opportunities for the discussion of educational questions. The inaugural meeting was held on January 15th, 1884, under the presidency of Mrs. Fawcett, who in her opening speech strongly advocated the formation of such an association. The Association was incorporated under the Companies Acts in 1897, and the first president after its incorporation was Mrs. Withiel. Its objects, as stated in its "Articles of Association," are: To promote the cause of education generally; to protect and improve the status and to further the legitimate professional interests of teachers. Any assistant-mistress of a public secondary school-that is, a secondary school administered by a representative or other governing body of a public character-is eligible for ordinary membership of the Association. The business is managed by an executive committee, consisting of a president, honorary treasurer, and fifteen members. The president and hon. treasurer hold office for one year, the other members of the committee for three. The president is chosen alternately from London and the country. The secretary is appointed at the first meeting of the executive committee held after the annual meeting. The president elected last January is Miss Laurie, of Cheltenham Ladies' College.

The Executive Committee entrusts much of the work of the Association to a sub-committee, known as the Emergency Committee, whose business it is to take whatever action may appear desirable for the furtherance of the objects of the Association,

such as sending representatives to conferences, joining deputations, memorialising the President of the Board of Education on any educational question that may arise on which the opinion of the Association has been ascertained. Already this year the Association through this committee has sent representatives to the conference held at Durham on the training of teachers, and to the conference of the National Association for the promotion of Technical and Secondary Education. At the present time, there are 682 members, representing about 140 schools. A large proportion of members naturally come from London, but there is hardly a county in England unrepresented, whilst the Welsh branch includes teachers from over twenty schools, and Scotland furnishes over

MISS LAURIE,

Assistant-mistress of Cheltenham Ladies' College; President of the
Association of Assistant-mistresses.

thirty members. The Association is gaining a footing in Ireland, and has a member in Denmark, and another in India. The representative character of the Association, the fact that it draws from such a large area, is of immense importance: it enables the Association to get together a body of opinion on educational questions, such as the training of teachers, which is of the utmost value to the profession-and to legislators.

The branches are free to organise any meetings they like, but they may not take any action involving the Association as a body. Any group of schools can form itself into a branch without reference to the committee, but naturally every member has to apply for election (forms of application may be obtained from the Secretary, Miss Fountain, Osberton Road, Lee, Kent), and the candidate's election is then considered by the Executive Committee. Branch meetings are held about once

a term, or oftener, when educational politics, or some subject of practical interest, such as the school curriculum, is discussed. Each branch has its own secretary, and each school in the branch its special correspondent. The branches send delegates to the general meeting held every year in London. Extraordinary general meetings are summoned, when necessary, by the Executive Committee.

It may be asked, has the A.A.M. succeeded in improving the status of teachers? Undoubtedly it has. It will be sufficient in support of this statement to show the influence that the Association has had on the registration of teachers. In 1891, Miss C. E. Collet, the president of that year, gave evidence before the Select Committee of the House of Commons formed for the consideration of the Registration Bills. In 1894, when the Bryce Commission on secondary education was sitting, the A.A.M. was again invited to give evidence, mainly on the subjects of registration and training. Miss Lumby, the President, and Mrs. Withiel, advocated, on behalf of the Association, that training should not be taken as a substitute for a knowledge qualification and that it need not necessarily be at a training college, for it was felt that it should be as varied as possible. The alphabetical register, consisting of columns in which the qualifications and training of teachers should be entered, were suggestions which, among others, have been adopted in the Registration Order of Council issued last March. Mrs. Withiel supplied special information on the financial position of women teachers, which the Commissioners regarded as very valuable. Lastly, in connection with this subject of registration, the fact that Miss Wallas, for two years president of the A.A.M., should have been nominated by the Board of Education a member of the Registration Council speaks for itself.

It is evident from these and many other facts which could be adduced that the A.A.M. has a

recognised official position as an Association through which it is possible to get at the opinion of assistant-mistresses in secondary schools. At the present time, no joint committee is formed on matters of any importance to secondary education without representatives from the Association being invited.

One is sometimes asked what are the benefits of belonging to the A.A.M.? That there are advantages it is easy to show, but it is somewhat surprising that the undeniable devotion of assistant-mistresses to their work does not more often lead them to ask, for the sake of the profession to which they belong, "Can I help on in any way the work of the Association by joining it?" Every assistant-mistress who joins the A.A.M. and attends meetings is helping to form that body of professional opinion which it is so important to have, especially in these days of educational activity. Not only this, but intercourse amongst teachers, the exchange of views, contact with different schools and systems, are invaluable. The experienced teacher gives of her experience and

receives in return from younger members a knowledge of newer methods and books, which might otherwise not have been gained, and thus the standard of the whole Association is raised and the profession benefited. Owing to the able management of its finances by its hon. treasurerspast and present-the A.A.M. appears to be one of the few societies that always meets its expenses and has a balance in hand, and this although the annual subscription is only 2s. 6d. Last year two members were sent, partly at the expense of the A.A.M., to the meeting of the British Association, to attend the debates of the Educational Science Section. In this way, not only can the views of the A.A.M. be stated as opportunity occurs, but through the reports furnished by their representatives and circulated amongst members the Association is kept in touch with the educational thoughts of the day.

One of the first acts of the Association was to start a free registry for its members. In January, 1898, at the invitation of the Teachers' Guild, the free registry of the A.A.M. was amalgamated with the Joint Agency for Women Teachers, managed by a committee of representatives from various educational bodies.

Then there is a library, from which members may obtain books by merely paying the postage; they may be kept for months, if not wanted by other members, so that country members who have not access to good libraries have found it useful. And here the valuable reports which are issued every year to members may be mentioned, for they contain a mass of information on current educational matters which it would be difficult to get elsewhere.

These material advantages are, however, of small moment compared with those that must result to individuals from any action taken by the A.A.M. in its corporate capacity. These it is not so easy to define, but they are none the less real, and perhaps the greatest is the inspiration that comes through the consciousness of many working together to advance the highest interests of the profession they have chosen for their life-work.

Wordsworth. By Prof. Walter Raleigh. 232 pp. (Edward Arnold.) 6s.-Prof. Raleigh has the art, when writing a literary monograph, to make it almost as fascinating as a novel. It is not that this book is to be called great or epoch making. There is already such a voluminous Wordsworth literature in print that to write anything absolutely new about this particular poet is exceedingly difficult. But there is a way of putting things, and of that way Prof. Raleigh is a master. Consequently he has written a charming and suggestive book upon a man whose genius still continues to puzzle many inquirers. Of course the vexed question of poetic diction could not be left out of account, but the most fascinating chapters of this work are those, which deal with Wordsworth's relation to Nature and Humanity and his own powers of illuminative insight. The most worn-out critic will hardly fail to read these with enjoyment; and the whole book breathes the spirit of lofty reverence united to a singular charm of style.

S

SQUARED PAPER.

By W. H. SALMON, B.A., B.Sc.

INCE the introduction of the heuristic method into our system of education the use of squared paper has come to play a very important part in laboratory instruction, more especially in physical work; the student is now encouraged to find out by his own experiments the relations between connected physical quantities, and to plot for himself curves to determine these relations. There is a growing tendency, too, in favour of concrete methods in science which necessitates a training in this and other methods of graphical representation. A few words, therefore, on the means of obtaining the different kinds of squared paper, and their cost, may be useful to the science teacher.

cm.

Many varieties may be obtained from the Educational Supply Association, Holborn Viaduct, E.C. This firm supplies at £1 7s. per gross a science exercise-book very useful for beginners, consisting of fifty-six pages of ordinary manuscript ruling and four squared pages ruled to tenths of an inch with red and blue lines at alternate half-inches, and containing a handy list of physical data. A similar book may also be obtained from them at £2 14s. per gross, consisting of sixty-four pages all ruled square, either to inch or cm., or Other kinds kept in stock by this firm are the 13-inch by 16-inch sheet ruled at intervals of 1 inch, inch, and cm., price 7s. 6d. per ream; a 91-inch by 144-inch sheet ruled with dark brown lines on a yellow background at intervals of a millimetre, the centimetres and centimetres being marked by thicker lines; and a 13-inch by 16-inch sheet ruled to tenths of an inch with faint blue lines, every inch being marked by red and dark blue lines alternately. This can be obtained at 15s. per ream.

This last is also supplied in rather better quality in sheets of 11 inches by 17 inches, by Messrs. Lamley and Co., Exhibition Road, S.W., at 9d. per quire or 12s. per ream. This firm also keeps squared paper notebooks in cloth covers, price IS. 6d., ruled in tenths of an inch with thicker lines at every inch and containing 120 pages, 8 inches by 10 inches.

Other London firms may also be mentioned. Messrs. Relfe Bros., 6, Charterhouse Buildings, E.C., will rule squared paper to any size from onesixteenth of an inch upwards; while more expensive kinds (from 3s. to 11s. a quire) may be obtained from Messrs. Waterlow and Sons. An extensive variety, too, including tracing paper and tracing cloth, may be obtained from Messrs. Tacey and Co., 39, City Road, E.C.

In addition the Midland Educational Co. have an establishment in Corporation Street, Birmingham, and a branch in Market Street, Leicester. Their "Physical Exercise Book," with cloth covers, may be especially noticed as being very useful for school laboratory work; it consists of sixty-four

leaves, ruled on one side with ordinary manuscript lines, on the other in squares, at intervals of inch; the ruling is very distinct, and the book is sold at £2 14s. per gross. Squared paper, ruled to tenths of an inch in faint blue lines, can also be obtained from them made up in "Reporter's" notebooks at 3s. per dozen. Square rulings, at intervals of inch, may also be had at 4s. 6d. to 7s. 6d. per ream, or made up in sixpenny notebooks. A very good quality paper supplied by this firm is their inch, ruled with blue lines and a thicker blue line at every inch, sold at is. 6d. per 100 sheets, or in books at 9s. per gross. Another Birmingham firm which should be mentioned is Messrs. Philip Harris and Co., who supply at 4s. per dozen notebook of 96 pages, with one side in inch squares, the other being ruled straight, and who keep in stock many varieties of the rulings brought out by the German firm, Schleicher and Schüll, mentioned below.

From the North of England School Furnishing Company, Darlington, may be obtained a sheet, 71⁄2 inches by 9 inches, ruled in squares at intervals of about one-eighth of an inch, and sold at Is. 6d. per 100 sheets.

Perhaps the best quality of squared paper on the market is that published by Schleicher and Schüll. This can be obtained either in sheet or roll from most of the firms mentioned above. It is, of course, somewhat expensive, costing about 12s. 6d. per roll (11 yards by 30 inches) unmounted, and 25s. mounted on cloth, or 5s. 6d. per quire of sheets 18 inches by 23 inches.

A recent introduction, probably unknown to most teachers, is Granville's Plotting Paper for polar co-ordinates. This only appeared in England last year, and the sole agents here are Messrs. Bemrose and Sons, 4, Snow Hill, E.C. It consists of a series of concentric circles with

straight lines radiating from the centre at intervals of five degrees, and is published in books of 40 sheets at Is. per book. This has been quite lately introduced in the first-year course in mathematics at the Central Technical College, and has been found useful in classes in elementary trigonometry.

So far we have referred only to squared paper for mathematical and scientific work, but a few words might be said about square rulings for drawing purposes. A varied assortment of these is kept in stock by the Midland Educational Company, and can be obtained either in the sheet form or made up in books, from 1d. upwards. The sheets are ruled at intervals, varying from inch up to one inch, and are sold at is. 3d. per 100 sheets. A different quality paper with rougher surface, marked with dots instead of lines, in squares of inch or inch, may be obtained here, made up into 1d. drawing books, having a page of 5 inches by 6 inches. Most of these varieties can, in fact, be obtained from almost any school stationer.

Of the various kinds of squared paper enumerated above, one of the most suitable for fairly advanced scientific work is the-inch ruling with thicker red

and blue lines at every alternate half inch. This is certainly to be preferred to the uniformly coloured faint-blue ruling, which is apt to be very confusing, and to lead to mistakes in plotting observations on the paper. The -inch ruling has also the advantage of being convenient for decimal computations. If, however, a laboratory notebook is desired square ruled on every page, then the fainter colours must be used, that the book may be suitable for ordinary writing. For more elementary work wider rulings would do, such as the halfcentimetre or the centimetre, and the exercise books, ruled partly for ordinary MS. work, partly in squares, would be found very useful.

It will not be out of place to conclude with a strong recommendation in favour of the introduc tion, and the early introduction, of lessons on squared paper into purely mathematical classes The recent agitation for a reform of the accepted methods of teaching mathematics in schools has been entirely in favour of a less abstract line of education. This alone is sufficient to show the necessity of some change, and every mathematical teacher will agree that the mind of the average boy is unable to assimilate a course of mathematics consisting wholly of abstract reasoning. A course of lessons on the use of squared paper (assuming practically no previous mathematical knowledge might very well be given to an elementary class, and would afford an excellent introduction to the study of co-ordinate geometry later on, should the pupil ever reach that stage. Common illustrations of the principles involved, as, for example, a temperature chart, showing their application to every day life, would rouse a fresh interest in mathematics, and, apart from the practical possibilities thus opened out, the concrete aspect of the subject would do much to relieve the mental strain which for some minds seems always associated with the study of abstract science.

THE LONDON EDUCATION BILL.

TH

HE. Education Bill for London was introduced in the House of Commons by S William Anson on April 7th, and read a first time. The object of the Bill is to extend and adapt the provisions of the Education Act of last year to London. Under the Bill, the School Board is to be abolished, and education is to be linked with municipal government. The London County Council is to some extent placed in the position of the county councils throughout the country, under the Act of last session; as the education authority for London, it will provide the money and exert a general control over educational policy, and it will act through an Education Committee which is to number ninety-seven, and be constituted as follows: