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intention of exhibiting at the amphitheatre, and commanded the attendance of the citizens. Curiosity or fear drew together a great multitude; and the feats of the emperor excited general astonishment. It is said, he cut asunder the neck of the ostrich in its rapid course; and, again, his javelin killed a panther before he could touch the malefactor on which it was let loose he slew a hundred lions in succession; and the elephant, rhinoceros, and other strange animals, brought from Ethiopia and India for the first time, were alike overcome by his darts. The triumph of the imperial bowman was unbounded: he required divine honours, and ordered medals to be struck, representing him as the Roman Hercules.* These rare and costly sports were tolerated by the people; but when the emperor took up the profession of a gladiator, which was only practised by malefactors or foreigners, nothing could exceed the indignation of the Romans; for the meanest of them would have been ashamed to appear in such a character. The most admired kind of combat was carried on in the following manner. One gladiator, called the Secutor (pursuer), had a helmet, a sword, and a shield; another, the Retiarius (one with a net), was naked, and had only a large net in his hand to entangle his adversary, and a three pronged instrument with which he might kill him if he succeeded. But, if he missed in the first throw, he was obliged to fly from the Secutor, who had thus an opportunity of killing him while he prepared to cast the net a second time.

Commodus fought as a Secutor seven hundred and thirtyfive times, and caused his deeds to be recorded in the public acts. As no one dared to use any skill against him, he always appeared the conqueror, and in public his victories were usually bloodless: but, it is said, in the private school of gladiators, numbers of lives were sacrificed. At length the

emperor went to such an extreme, that he required an immense yearly salary to be paid him, as a gladiator, out of the fund raised by the people in support of the entertainments of the amphitheatre.

He became more ferocious in spirit the more he knew of

* Hercules is the Samson of the Pagans; but the fables concerning him describe him as far stronger than Samson, and the destroyer of monsters. He was probably a famous hunter, and worshipped after his death.

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the hatred and contempt of the people, and even his own household were afraid of him. His favourite, Marcia, fearing her own life was in danger, one day presented him with a poisoned draught of wine when he came in weary with the day's sport and, after he had retired to sleep, a wrestler went into his chamber and strangled him. Thus was the same horrid scene acted again and again. This event took place in the middle of the night of the first of January, A.D. 193; and Pertinax, prefect of the city, almost the only remaining friend of Marcus, was awakened out of his sleep and offered the empire. The conspirators took him to the Prætorian camp to buy the consent of the guards, and then spread a report through the city that Commodus had died suddenly of apoplexy, and that Pertinax was emperor. Pertinax had governed most of the provinces with wisdom, and was as acceptable to the people as to the senators; but the Prætorians never liked one who made any attempt to curb their lawless spirit. He had just time to repair some of the evils occasioned by the misconduct of Commodus; and he did every thing to relieve the distresses of the people; but, on the twenty-eighth of March, the restless guards broke out into open rebellion, murdered Pertinax in his palace, and carried his head to their camp in the sight of the mourning people.

The scene that followed is, perhaps, the most singular in the history of this, or of any other empire. Sulpicianus, father-inlaw to Pertinax, and prefect of the city, was sent by the senate to try to calm the furious soldiers; and took this opportunity of offering them large rewards if they would secure the empire to him.

Emboldened by such a proposal from the man who had authority to rebuke them, the leader of the shameless Prætorians mounted the ramparts, and loudly proclaimed that the empire was put up to sale, and might be purchased by the highest bidder.

The report quickly spread through the city; and Didius Julianus, a wealthy old senator, but a weak-minded vain person, soon hastened to the camp to secure the prize. As he had power to give more than Sulpicianus, his offers were soon accepted; and the Prætorians, after obliging the senate to consent to his election, conducted him to the palace. The headless corpse of Pertinax, and the frugal supper prepared

HISTORY OF S. SEVERUS.

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for him, at once met the eyes of the new emperor: but he disdained the lessons he might have learned from both; and ordering a sumptuous feast for himself and his guests, amused himself to a late hour with the performance of a public dancer.

The proud citizens, however, soon began to murmur loudly at such an unheard-of insult to the majesty of Rome: the guards began to be ashamed of their avarice, and of the weakness of the nominal emperor; and the legions on the frontiers arose with one accord to avenge the murdered Pertinax, and restore, as they said, the honour of the empire.

Septimus Severus, the general of the legions in Pannonia and Dalmatia, gladly embraced this long-wished-for opportunity to obtain the imperial power for himself. Scarcely allowing time for sleep or food, he marched into Italy, using every effort by the way to win the love and confidence of his troops. Didius Julianus heard of his approach with the greatest terror; and, not knowing how to act, he sent ambassadors to make terms with Severus, and assassins to destroy him. But all his efforts failed; and he was beheaded after a miserable reign of sixty-six days.

Severus was accepted at Rome; but he had two formidable rivals elsewhere,-Niger, the general of the legions in the East, and Albinus, general of those in Britain. Both of these had the favour of their respective provinces, and the warm support of armies equal to that of Severus: but he made up in subtlety what he wanted in strength. In order to keep Albinus quiet, he sent him the title of Cæsar, whilst he fought with Niger: and, when he had overthrown the general of the East, and secured the provinces, he set off for the West, sending forwards messengers to salute the Cæsar as the brother of his soul and empire, but with secret directions to plunge their daggers in his breast.

But Albinus had discovered the character of Severus, and prepared to meet him as his enemy. However, in a single battle fought near Lyons, where one hundred and fifty thousand Romans were assembled, Severus was the conqueror. Not satisfied with these victories, he resolved, as soon as he was acknowledged emperor, to punish all who had supported his rivals; and forty-one senators and their families, with some of the noblest of the provincials, were put to death. In the

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end he obtained such absolute power that the historians and lawyers of his time agreed that the imperial authority was no longer held from the senate; and that the emperor could dispose of his subjects, or their lands, as his own property. To confirm his despotism, Severus increased the guards four-fold, and introduced among them soldiers from the frontier legions who were distinguished for their strength or courage, so that the citizens were affrighted by the strange faces and manners of a host of barbarians. But the emperor contrived to win the favour of the multitude by public shows, and by adorning the city with fine buildings. He also provided liberally for their wants, and, as a judge, favoured the poor rather than the rich, in order to keep down the higher classes whose influence he dreaded.

In the early part of his reign, Severus protected the Christians because one of them had cured him of some disease by the use of a certain oil: and it is even supposed that his eldest son, Caracalla, had a Christian nurse. But in the tenth year of his reign, when his pride was increased by great success in a war with the Parthians, he wished to have himself and his gods universally honoured, and tried to prevent the spread of the Gospel. This was in A.D. 202.

The province of Africa, of which the emperor was a native, was particularly exposed to his wrath, because the Christians abounded there; and we have a particular account of the persecution of the African churches from the pen of Tertullian of Carthage, the first Latin writer among the Christians.

His written Apology gives a very lively account of the principles and manners of his brethren, and proves that much light and life remained among them. He said that they were in the habit of praying for the emperor with outstretched hands and uncovered heads; that they were numerous enough to resist the injuries done to them if their principles would have permitted them to do so, but they had given the government abundant proofs of their peaceable disposition. To quote his own words, which perhaps give an exaggerated description, "Are there not multitudes of us in every part of the world? It is true we are but of yesterday; and yet we have filled all your towns, cities, islands, castles, boroughs, councils, camps, courts, palaces, senate, forum! We leave you only

he says,

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your temples! If we were to retire, you would be astonished at your solitude!"

This account indeed seems rather inconsistent with another

passage that runs thus: : - We are dead to all ideas of worldly honour and dignity, nothing is more foreign to us than political concerns.” He speaks afterwards of their readiness to pay the taxes, and of the regulations of the Church; and notices that their charity to each other was so conspicuous that it was commonly said, See how these Christians love one

another!"

A glance into the imperial family at this period affords the most striking contrast to this picture; for hatred between brethren was never more fearfully exhibited than in Caracalla and Geta, the two sons of Severus. Their mother, Julia Domna, was a Syrian lady of rank and of extraordinary abilities; and Severus expected great domestic happiness. But he was `bitterly disappointed: his children were of the most opposite dispositions, and seemed to hate each other from their childhood. As they grew up their father tried to unite them together by declaring them joint heirs of the empire, with the title of Augustus, so that for the first time there were three emperors of the Roman world. But this had not the desired effect: Caracalla asserted his birth-right; and Geta had the advantage as the best beloved by the people and army.

In A.D. 208, Severus resolved to take his sons into Britain, as that province had been invaded by the Caledonians; and he hoped they would forget their private quarrels amidst the fatigues of war. No regular battle was fought in Caledonia; but the natives continually harassed the Romans by coming upon them unexpectedly from their mountain retreats; and thousands perished through the severity of a winter campaign. At length the Caledonians offered to give up a portion of their lands for the sake of peace; and Severus consented to retire to Eboracum (York). But he soon found they had no intention of keeping their promises; and, in a great rage, he prepared to attack them again. He was then eighty-one years of age, and had long been suffering from gout; and, though apparently in the height of worldly glory, his body was full of disease, and his mind overwhelmed with anxiety about his sons. At this period the wretched emperor found Caracalla had more than once tried to hasten his death; and this