perhaps drew from him the memorable exclamation, “I have been all things that man could wish, but I am now nothing." He did not, however, attend to the advice of his counsellors in sentencing his unnatural son to death; and expired soon after, recommending his children to live in peace, and desiring the army to secure to them the joint possession of the empire.

It may be a relief to the mind to turn aside for a little while from this painful history, to inquire what Rome was like in the days of imperial grandeur, and what were the manners and customs of its inhabitants.

CHAP. XXVIII.

ROME. THE CAPITOL.-THE AMPHITHEATRE OF TITUS.-TEMPLES. BATHS.-AQUEDUCTS. -SEWERS.- DRESS OF THE ROMANS.- MEALS. - MARRIAGES. - FUNERALS. MODE OF ADMINISTERING JUSTICE.-THE PUBLIC WAYS.

THE ruins that still remain confirm the historical accounts of the grandeur of Rome: but all this greatness bears the same stamp; and, with a silent yet powerful voice, speaks to a Christian's heart that the glory of men is in their shame.

The city, as we have observed before, had gradually covered seven hills; and, in the time of Nero, it contained three millions of people, one thousand seven hundred and eighty palaces, and four hundred idol temples.

Perhaps the first object that would have struck the eye on entering the city was the Capitol, or temple of Jupiter Capitolinus, as it stood on rising ground, and occupied four square acres. It was several times destroyed by fire, and as frequently rebuilt: that erected in the reign of Domitian, to which the Jewish offerings largely contributed, was the grandest of all; and, it is said, the gilding alone cost a million of money. The front was adorned by three rows of pillars, and the sides by two of the same description; the ascent to it was by a hundred steps. Probably there was a desire to equal the magnificence of the Temple at Jerusalem; the destruction of which was a source of so much regret to Titus. The amphitheatre of Titus was an oval building, five hundred and sixty-four feet

THE AMPHITHEATRE AND TEMPLES.

163

long, and four hundred and sixty-seven broad, founded on eighty arches, and rising in four different styles of architecture to the height of one hundred and forty feet. The seats were of marble, handsomely cushioned, and could easily accommodate eighty thousand persons. To avoid any confusion in the assembling of such a multitude, all ranks of people had their ordered places, and came out at sixty-four doors, aptly called vomitories. The centre of the building was an open space, called the arena (Lat. sand), and around it were the dens of the wild beasts and other arrangements for public amusement. The whole building was ornamented in the most costly manner; the defence against the wild animals was, in the period of greatest luxury, a net of gold wire; and the belt, which divided the different ranks of spectators, was studded with precious stones. Subterraneous pipes conveyed such an immense supply of water to the amphitheatre that the arena might be turned into a lake for the exhibition of sea-fights or finny monsters. Sometimes, to vary the entertainment, it was laid out as a pleasure garden, but more usually wore the appearance of a desert full of rocks and caverns suited to the wild beasts.

In looking through our history, let us notice what torrents of blood streamed in this magnificent place,-what cries of agony were heard there,-what savage passions were cherished,-what barbarous tastes cultivated, and how the Christian martyrs and the Jews were sacrificed for the pleasure of their fellow-men,-the heart will then sicken at these wonders of human art; and may the lust of the eyes be thereby deadened! The distinguishing monument of Roman polytheism was the Pantheon (Greek, all-gods), a temple dedicated to all the gods, and filled with their statues. It was a building of a circular form, covered with a dome, which was sheeted with silver in the days of the greatest magnificence. The temple of Saturn, the strongest building in the city, was used as the treasury and place of general registry; and thus every thing was connected with the reigning idolatry. The temple of Janus, which has been frequently mentioned, was built wholly of brass. It was only shut nine times in a thousand years, so few were the intervals of peace in this great empire. The descriptions of the vast extent and costly fitting up of the public baths, which the meanest citizen had a right to use, almost

164

DRESS OF THE ROMANS.

exceed belief. It is said, many of the seats were of solid silver, and the floors inlaid with precious stones. The ruins of the baths of Caracalla, which still remain, surprise the modern visitor.

The twenty aqueducts which supplied the city with water were the most useful, and not the least wonderful specimens of Roman art. Some of these stone water-courses were supported by arches one hundred feet high, and even rocks were cut through with immense labour to afford them a passage. The common sewers were not less important, as, by their means, a rapid current of water ran underground throughout the city, carrying away every impurity and securing general cleanliness. When swelled by rains, the streams in these subterranean channels might be heard beating violently against the pavement without injuring it; and even earthquakes, which shook the foundations of the city, did not move their strong workmanship.

The multitudes that thronged the streets of this vast city wore a very different appearance to any people we have ever seen. Within doors all the Romans wore a close coat, called the Tunic, and the poor had no other; but in the streets the upper classes wore the Toga, a loose dress of a circular form without sleeves; the head was put through a circular hole in the centre, and the garment thus hung in elegant folds round the wearer. Its common colour was the natural whiteness of the wool; but when bleached by artificial means it was more admired, and called the toga candida (white); and for mourning the toga was dyed black. The senatorial toga had a broad purple border; that of the patricians generally was rather narrower. The emperor alone wore a toga wholly of purple ; hence "to wear the purple," meant to be emperor. The ancient Romans went bare-headed, only using the lappet of their gowns to protect them from rain or cold. The coverings for the feet were commonly sandals, only protecting the sole of the foot, and bound with red straps half-way up the leg; but the plebeians wore a kind of half-boots, made of raw hides. The common dress of the Roman women was the stola, a garment reaching to the ancles; and when they went out, the pallium, a long open dress, was thrown over it, which concealed the shape of the wearer by its loose and elegant folds. Their heads were adorned with ribbons, or simply a fillet bound

round the hair, and their sandals were fastened by straps and buckles. The Roman soldiers, when fully equipped, wore a coat of mail, which was made of several folds of linen thickly quilted together, or of leather, and covered with scales of iron, silver, or gold, according to the rank of the wearer. Their arms were a sword, something like the scymetar used by the modern Turks; a shield, about four feet long, made of wood, strengthened with iron, and covered with bull's hide; the javelin, a staff with an iron head barbed and jagged at the end; and the helmet, a head-piece of brass or iron, on the top of which was the crest, composed of feathers or horse hair. The helmets of the officers were often very splendid, and of curious workmanship, either in gold or silver.

The occasional refreshment of the Romans only consisted of a little bread and honey, or dried fruits: their only regular meal being at the ninth hour of the day, which, as they reckoned their day from six in the morning, answered to our three o'clock in the afternoon. The eating-room either contained a number of couches, or one large semi-circular couch with a table of the same shape. In the houses of the rich these couches were decorated with ivory, silver, and gold; and the cushions were of the most costly materials. When luxury was at its height in Rome, we read of a single supper for a few friends costing £250, and of a man who killed himself because he had only £250,000 left, or sufficient for a year's expences! The preparations for receiving guests were very expensive, as it was customary to collect the sumptuous delicacies of all countries at the tables of Rome. When the company arrived they bathed with the master of the house, or at least had their feet washed; their usual dress was exchanged for a kind of light frock, and they put off their shoes that they might not soil the fine carpets or furniture of the couches. In taking their places, the first lay at the head of the couch, resting on his left elbow; the second reclined with his head in front of the feet of the first, from which he was separated by a bolster; and the rest lay in the same manner. The most honourable place was the middle of the couch, in the centre of the room. The guests were usually crowned with garlands and presented with expensive perfumes. The several courses were brought in arranged on tables, and not in single dishes. During the entertainment musicians or dancers were hired to amuse the company.

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MARRIAGES AND FUNERALS.

The remembrance that the manners of the Romans were much adopted in Judea will explain many of the allusions to these customs in the Gospels.

The foolish superstitions of Paganism were blended with every event in the life of the Romans. When a marriage was to be celebrated, the first care was to choose a day that was considered fortunate, and to consult the omens. The bride, probably on account of the warlike character of her people, had her long hair parted with a spear, before she was crowned with the wreath of flowers and covered with the veil provided for the occasion. If she were a noble lady, she was led to the bridegroom's house in the evening by three youths wearing the patrician toga; torch-bearers went before her, and a distaff and spindle were carried in the procession, as emblems of the duties of her new situation. After many foolish ceremonies at the door, to preserve the house from witchcraft and sorcery, the bride was lifted over the threshold and presented with the keys. The bridegroom came forwards with two vessels, one containing fire, the other water, signifying the domestic cares that belonged to the wife. At the wedding-feast it was usual for the bridegroom to scatter about nuts, to be scrambled for by boys; thereby showing that he himself had done with all childish amusements.

As we have had frequent occasion to refer to funeral honours, and the importance attached to them, a short account of the ceremonies used on such occasions may be added here.

When a person was dying, it was usual for the nearest relatives or friends to embrace him; and as soon as he expired the same persons did the last offices. The body was washed and anointed, and dressed in the most valuable garments that belonged to the deceased; and if he had obtained any crowns of honour they were placed on the head. The corpse was laid at the entrance of the house on a couch, and exclamations of grief were uttered at intervals by persons stationed there on purpose, and cypress branches were placed in the front of the house as emblems of mourning.

The funeral procession began with musicians playing flutes

* A crown of oak-leaves, given to a soldier who had saved the life of any Roman citizen in battle, was considered the most honourable but there were other crowns of laurel, and of gold, given as rewards for different acts of service.