his foreign wars. The Sarmatians, and not the Germans, were, at this time, disturbing the northern frontier. The distinction between these two races was marked by a difference of language and habits. The Germans dwelt in fixed huts, wore a close dress, only married one wife, and had none but foot soldiers. The Sarmatians lived in moveable tents, dressed in loose garments, had many wives, and fought on horseback. The former used the Teutonic, the latter the Sclavonian language. It is said that sixteen thousand of the Sarmatians were killed in their war with Carus, and twenty thousand taken captive.

The emperor was so encouraged by his military success, that he led on his armies at once towards the Persian frontier, and bade them look upon this rich and beautiful country as likely soon to be their own.

Varanes, the successor of Sapor, had subdued the Segestans, the most warlike nation of Upper Asia; but he was so much alarmed by the approach of the Romans, that he sent ambassadors to offer renewed conditions of peace. Carus was more like the ancient Roman warriors than any of his imperial predecessors; and, by his contempt of luxury and his stern discipline, he hoped to revive the decaying vigour of the legions. The stately Persian ambassadors were greatly surprised to find the Roman emperor seated on the grass, dressed in a coarse woollen toga of purple, with some bacon and a few hard peas for his supper. The purple seemed alone to distinguish him from the rest of the soldiers, who were taking their usual evening meal.

Carus received the proposals of Varanes in silence; and then taking off the cap which covered his bald head, he told the pompous ambassadors that, unless their master would acknowledge the superiority of Rome, he would speedily make Persia as bare of trees as his head was of hair.

He began by wasting Mesopotamia, and destroying all that opposed his progress; and, from the farther side of the Tigris, he wrote to the Senate, describing his conquests, and bidding them confidently look for the downfall of the Persian monarchy, and the addition of Arabia to the empire. But the next report that reached Rome was of a very different character. Carus died in a sudden and mysterious manner during a violent thunder-storm; but it remained uncertain

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whether from the effects of the lightning, or from previous disease, A. D. 283.

The army obliged Numerian to lead them away from the spot where his father had perished, as they considered the storm was occasioned by the wrath of the gods, who would not permit the power of Rome to extend beyond the Tigris. Numerian was glad to retreat, as his own health was failing; and a weakness in his eyes obliged him to have his tent darkened, and to travel in a close litter. The people at Rome were, moreover, longing for his return, as he was of a very amiable character; and his elder brother had wearied them by displaying the extravagance of Heliogabalus and the cruelty of Domitian. Even Carus had been so displeased by the reports of his conduct that he threatened to adopt Constantius, then governor of Dalmatia, in his stead; but, at this emperor's sudden death, both his sons were immediately accepted as his successors. During the long retreat from Persia, Numerian never showed himself to the army; but Aper, his father-inlaw, the Prætorian prefect, who guarded his tent and litter, constantly delivered the commands of the invisible emperor. Eight months after the death of Carus, while the returning troops were resting at Chalcedon, a town in Asia Minor, a suspicion arose that Numerian was no more, and that Aper had usurped the sovereignty in his name. The guarded tent was immediately forced open, and found to contain only the body of the deceased prince. It is possible, Numerian died of disease; but the concealment of his death was the condemnation of Aper. Diocletian, the commander of the body-guards, was proclaimed emperor; and a military tribunal being raised on the spot, Aper was brought before him as a criminal. Without any examination into the circumstances of the case, Diocletian, turning towards the sun, declared his own innocence, and then plunged his sword in Aper's bosom, exclaiming, "This man is the murderer of Numerian!"

Carinus in the meantime had made himself so hateful by his vices, that the Senate and the people of Rome were disposed to prefer Diocletian. The Eastern army and the legions headed by Carinus met near the Danube; and the latter might have overcome the sickly and exhausted troops of Diocletian, but a tribune, who had been injured by him, gratified his own revenge, and ended the civil war, by the murder of Carinus, A. D. 285.

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DIOCLETIAN AND MAXIMINIAN.

The parents of Diocletian were Dalmatian peasants, and had been slaves to a Roman senator: but, after they obtained their freedom, he contrived to enter the army; and, having gained much experience under the command of Probus, he rapidly rose to the rank he held when he was made emperor. No one except Augustus displayed such extraordinary talents for government as Diocletian; but he had a very different people to rule from those of the first emperor, and therefore acted in a very different manner. It had been the constant effort of Augustus to conceal his absolute power; for he was aware that humble familiarity was the best means of securing the head of a nation of republicans such as the Romans were then: but Diocletian's absolute power was secured by the display of it; and his safety, as the head of a nation of slavish habits, was ensured by the adoption of the Oriental custom of pompous concealment. The first act of Diocletian was to associate with himself Maximinian, a well-known general: by birth a peasant, and by disposition the ready instrument of cruelties which his artful colleague did not wish to have charged upon himself. The friendship of these two emperors was never broken; and their flatterers bestowed on them the titles of Jupiter and Hercules; saying, that Diocletian, like Jupiter, governed the world by his wisdom, and Maximinian, like Hercules, destroyed the monsters that disturbed it. They freed themselves from the control of the Senate and the Prætorians by keeping away from Rome: in time of peace, Diocletian held his court at Nicomedia, and Maximinian resided at Milan; and these imperial cities, being enriched by their respective monarchs, began to rival the capital in magnificence. It appears that Diocletian fixed on Nicomedia as the most favourable situation for overlooking his subjects in Europe and Asia, as it was just on the borders; and it was also in a convenient position to overawe both the northern barbarians and the hostile Persians, being placed at an equal distance from the Danube and the Euphrates.

In the reign of Diocletian, the title of Lord (Dominus) was added to that of emperor (Imperator); and he only refused the title of king (Rex), because old associations made it so hateful to the Romans; his Asiatic subjects always addressed him as king (Basileus, Greek). With a higher title, the Roman emperors henceforward, after the example of Diocletian, adopted a different style of dress and manners. They wore

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robes of purple silk embroidered with gold, a diadem of pearls, and even their shoes studded with gems. The emperors had been commonly saluted with no more respect than the magistrates or senators; and their palace, if they were not suspicious tyrants, was open to every one; but now all the forms and ceremonies of the Persian court were adopted,-all the avenues of the palace guarded by different ranks of domestic officers; the interior apartments filled with eunuchs, and the access to the emperor's person made as difficult as possible. And when any subject at length reached the presence-chamber, whatever his rank might be, he was required to fall prostrate at the feet of the emperor, as his lord and master. The system of Diocletian appeared to be admirably adapted for the end he had in view, namely, personal security; and from this time the emperors were usually suffered to die a natural death. The people at large, however, suffered more from the establishment of despotism; and the increased magnificence of the imperial courts added to their oppressive taxes. The united reign of Diocletian and Maximinian was marked by the revolt of the peasantry of Gaul, who were driven to despair by the ill-treatment of the nobles who held them in slavery. They were, however, defeated, and reduced to a worse condition than before. About the same period, Carausius, commander of the Roman fleet in the British Channel, took possession of the valuable province of Britain, and held it for seven years in spite of every attempt to recover it. It appears he was a very able monarch; and, under his government, the advantageous position of this island as commanding the sea, was first perceived. The convenient harbours, the climate, the soil, the mines, the numerous flocks in the rich pastures, the woods free from wild beasts and venomous serpents; all these advantages, and especially the revenue arising from this valuable island, were summed up as sufficient causes for lamenting its separation from the empire. But Carausius vigorously defended his kingdom from the Caledonians on the North; and, as he had possession of Boulogne and the neighbouring country, and his fleet rode securely in the Channel, even Diocletian dared not approach his dominions, but left him to reign in peace. The friendship of the Franks was also an assistance to the sovereign of Britain; and he cultivated it, by imitating their dress and manners, and by instructing some of their bravest youths both in naval

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and military arts. Coins issued by Carausius are still in being; and he reigned prosperously for seven years, when he was murdered by Allectus his chief minister.

In A. D. 291, Diocletian, perceiving that the empire was threatened on all sides by the barbarians, determined to appoint two new sovereigns with the inferior title of Cæsars, but with almost imperial power. The two generals, whom he chose, have been already mentioned as serving under Probus. Galerius, originally a herdsman, in character resembled Maximinian ; and Constantius, surnamed Chlorus, a nobleman of a far more amiable disposition than either of the sovereigns, who was inclined to favour Christianity on account of its beneficial influence. In order to strengthen their political union, Diocletian adopted Galerius and gave him his daughter in marriage; and Maximinian acted in the same way towards Constantius. For the sake of this imperial alliance both the Cæsars divorced their former wives; and Helena, the wife of Constantius, with her son Constantine, were deprived of their natural rights, and put aside as mean persons.

The empire was divided and subdivided in the following manner. Gaul and Spain were entrusted to Constantius, with a commission to recover Britain. Galerius reigned over the Illyrian provinces. Italy and Africa were the portion of Maximinian; and Diocletian kept for himself Thrace, Egypt, and the rich provinces of Asia. Each of them was absolute sovereign within his own dominions, and their united authority extended over the whole empire, every public act being done in the names of all: but Diocletian always preserved the superiority by means of his remarkable abilities, and his influence over the minds of the rest as their common benefactor. Their mutual interest kept up an uninterrupted harmony for many years; and it was not broken till the guidance of Diocletian ceased.

Our history will now be rather more difficult to pursue, as we have the movements of different leaders to notice and their connexion with each other, instead of the narrative of a solitary emperor. Before, however, we proceed farther in the history of the world, it is necessary to inquire into the state of the Church during its long period of outward tranquillity.