early acquired the patronage of Montagu, afterwards earl of Sandwich, who employed him as secretary in the expedition for bringing Charles II from Holland. On his return, he was appointed one of the principal officers of the navy. In 1673, when the king took the admiralty into his own hands, he appointed Mr. Pepys secretary to that office. He was employed under lord Dartmouth, in the expedition against Tangier, and often accompanied the duke of York in his naval visits to Scotland, and coasting cruises. On the accession of William and Mary, he published his Memoirs relating to the navy for ten years preceding, and led a retired life from this time till his death, in 1703. He was president of the royal society for ten years. He left a large collection of manuscripts to Magdalen college, Oxford, consisting of naval memoirs, prints, and five large folio volumes of ancient English poetry, begun by Selden, and carried down to 1700, from which the Reliques of Ancient English Poetry, by doctor Percy, are, for the most part, selected. His Diary affords a curious picture of the dissolute court of Charles II. PERA; a suburb of Constantinople, connected with the suburb of Galata, and formerly the quarter of the principal Greeks, Armenians, Jews and Franks, except the French who resided in Galata. There were here four Greek churches, and one Roman Catholic, and some monasteries. The Christian ambassadors also resided here, and the European style of dress and living prevailed here; it was therefore called by the Turks Swine's Quarter. It was almost entirely destroyed by fire in August, 1831. The palaces of the Austrian and Swedish missions escaped.

PERCEVAL, Spencer, second son of John Perceval, earl of Egmont, born 1762, received his education at Harrow, and Trinity college, Cambridge, of which he became a member about the year 1775. On quitting the university, he studied law. He soon distinguished himself as a sound constitutional lawyer, and obtained a silk gown. In 1801, he became solicitor-general, and, in 1802, attorney-general. On the formation of the new ministry, in 1807, after the death of Mr. Fox, he was appointed chancellor of the exchequer. În this post he continued till May 11, 1812, when, while in the act of approaching the door of the house of commons, a person named Bellingham, who had for some time previously presented a variety of memorials respecting some alleged ill treatment received in Russia, shot him dead,

with a pistol, in the lobby. The assassin, who avowed that he had been waiting with the view of destroying lord Leveson Gower, the ambassador to the court of St. Petersburg, made no attempt to escape, and was instantly arrested. Although a plea of insanity was set up by his counsel, he was found guilty, and executed on the 18th of the same month.

PERCUSSION LOCKS; a late and very useful invention. The percussion lock has no pan. In the place of the pan, a small tube projects horizontally from the side of the gun. In this tube another small tube stands perpendicularly. The cock, instead of being formed to hold a flint, is shaped somewhat like a hammer, with a hollow to fit upon the tube last mentioned. On this tube a little cap of copper is placed, in the bottom of which is a chemical mixture that kindles by percussion. This percussion is produced by the cock, which therefore requires a very strong spring. The powder is made in various ways, and of different materials; among others, of mercury, purified nitric acid, and spirit of wine freed from water. The copper caps in which this chemical powder is placed are two and a half lines long and two lines wide. Sometimes the powder is also formed in pills, and then a somewhat different contrivance is required to place the pills, covered with a little wax, to protect them from moisture, in the small tube. The advantages of a percussion lock are great: 1. Provided the spring of the cock is strong, and the chemical powder good, the gun cannot miss fire (as to the latter, the sportsman must choose a good chemist); while common locks are exposed to miss fire from many causes-bad flints, bad steel, bad priming, and weak springs. 2. The chemical powder explodes much more rapidly and forcibly than common powder, and therefore explodes the powder in the gun itself more forcibly, so as to produce a prompter and more effectual discharge. 3. The moisture of the air has hardly any influence: in a violent rain, the lock is as sure to give fire as in the driest day. 4. The danger of an unintentional discharge is avoided: as long as the copper cap is not placed on the little tube, the gun cannot go off, even if the cock is snapped by mistake; while, with other guns, there is always danger, even when no priming has been put in the pan, because some grains may always escape through the touchhole, and the cock may always be accidentally snapped. The caps or pills which the sportsman must carry with him are not dangerous, because it

requires a very strong percussion to explode the powder. (For its manufacture, see Mercury, vol. viii, p. 421.) Percussion locks have come very much into use, and attempts have even been made to introduce them into armies, though the expense of the chemical powder may be an objection. PERCY, Thomas, bishop of Dromore, in Ireland, a descendant of the family of Northumberland, was born in Bridgenorth in 1728, and was graduated at Christ-church, Oxford, in 1753. In 1769, he was appointed chaplain to the king, and, in 1778, raised to the deanery of Carlisle, which he resigned four years after for the Irish bishopric of Dromore. The most popular of his works are his Reliques of Ancient English Poetry (in 3 vols., 8vo.), and a poem, the Hermit of Warkworth. He was well skilled in the Icelandic and several of the Oriental languages, especially the Chinese, from which he made some translations. His other writings are a Key to the New Testament, a new version of Solomon's Song, with translations of Mallet's Northern Antiquities, and of some pieces of Icelandic poetry. He also published a curious domestic record, long extant in the Percy family, and known as the Northumberland Household-Book-a document valuable for the light it throws on manners. His death took place at Dromore, Sept. 30, 1811.

PERDICCAS; the name of several kings of Macedonia, and, at a later period, of the most distinguished general of Alexander, a noble Macedonian, who attended him on his campaign to Asia, and enjoyed his confidence above all others. Alexander, just before his death, gave him his signet-ring, the emblem of regal power, and, by this action, seemed to fix upon him as his successor to the throne. Perdiccas was ambitious enough to desire this elevation; but the influence of his enemies and rivals prevented him from receiving a bigher rank than that of guardian of the heir to the throne. He succeeded, however, in making himself second only to the king. But he aspired still higher, and was engaged in a war with his rival Ptolemy, when his soldiers mutinied, partly owing to his own arrogance. He was assassinated by his soldiers in Egypt B. C. 321, three years after he had been appointed guardian to the successor of Alexander.

PÈRE DE LACHAISE. (See Lachaise.) PEREGRINUS PROTEUS, a notorious character, who flourished in the first half of the second century, was born at Parium, in Mysia. After many excesses, he was charged

with parricide, and was obliged to flee. He went to Palestine, became a Christian, and, by his zeal, which brought him to a dungeon, gained the name of a martyr. He received support and sympathy from every quarter, till the prefect of Syria set him at liberty. He now recommenced his wanderings, was excluded from the church for his vices, and then gave himself up to the most disgraceful excesses. An object of universal abhorrence, he desired at least to finish his career in an extraordinary manner. He accordingly gave out that he should burn himself alive at the Olympic games. This he did, in presence of an immense multitude A. D. 168. Much interest has been given to the history of this singular character by the romance of Wieland.

PERENNIAL, in botany, is applied to those plants whose roots will abide many years, whether they retain their leaves in winter or not. Those which retain their leaves are called evergreens; but such as cast their leaves are called deciduous.

PERFECTIBILITY; the capacity of being made perfect. It is a word used in philosophy, religious and moral, with reference to individuals and to society, to the present and the future state. Moral duties include not only the duties which we owe to others, but also the great duty which we owe to ourselves, to strive uninterruptedly for the improvement of our mental and moral faculties. This supposes that our own improvement is in our own power, which has been doubted by certain philosophers, materialists and others, who make our whole moral condition dependent upon causes beyond our control, thus denying, in fact, a moral condition. The question whether we can ever attain, on earth, to a state of perfection, resolves itself into this-whether we can ever, in this world, acquire a perfect knowledge of our duties, and a perfect will to perform them. The consideration of the hinderances to such a will and knowledge belongs to the great question of the origin of evil. But, however imperfect may be all the attainments that we can make in this world, on which point every one's own conscience will satisfy him better than the most elaborate reasoning, no one should be deprived by such considerations from striving for all the improvement within his power. To stop, or to go backwards, is to be wretched. Secondly, as to the perfectibility of society. It was loudly maintained by some French writers, at the beginning of the revolution of the last century, that society

was making a progress which must ultimately end in a perfect state. Whether they meant that the individuals composing society would become perfect, or referred to some unintelligible perfection in the social system, distinct from the individuals composing it, history and the experience of every reflecting man sufficiently prove the notion to be visionary. For some centuries, the European races seem to have been improving in several respects; in others, however, they have essentially retrograded; and, however great the improvement, on the whole, may be, few, we believe, think that the state of human society will ever become perfect; but this is no more discouraging than the corresponding imperfection in the case of the individual. (See Civilization.) Thirdly, as to perfectibility in a future state. of course, we cannot mean by future perfection the possibility of attaining unlimited power, wisdom and goodness, because this would destroy all difference between ourselves and God. The word perfectibility, used in reference to man, can, of course, mean nothing more than a capacity of unending improvement, and reason does not rebuke the hope of such a progress. It has been asked whether the happiness to be expected from constant progress in a future state would not be counterbalanced by a despondency arising from the consciousness of imperfection, which would only increase with the increase of knowledge. Such a question seems sufficiently answered by the happiness which virtuous effort, and a consciousness of improvement, gives on earth. The beautiful illustration of Leibnitz, when he compared the relation between blessed spirits and the Deity to that existing between the asymptote (q. v.) and the hyperbola, the former of which is mathematically proved to approach the latter ad infinitum, without ever reaching it, is well known; but, though a beautiful comparison, it throws no light upon the question. "Eye hath not seen, nor ear heard, neither, have entered into the heart of man, the things which God hath prepared for them that love him."

PERGOLESI. (See the last page in the Appendix, end of this volume.)

PERI. The Peris, in Persian mythology, are the descendants of fallen spirits, excluded from paradise until their penance is accomplished.

PERICARDIUM, in anatomy, is a membranous bag filled with water, which contains the heart in man and many other animals.

PERICARPIUM, among botanists; a cov ering or case for the seeds of plants.

PERICLES, one of the most celebrated statesmen of Greece, whose age (about B. C.444) was the most flourishing period of Grecian art and science, was born at Athens. His father was Xanthippus, a general celebrated for his victory over the Persians at Mycale. Damon, Anaxagoras, and Zeno of Elea, were his instructers. Connected by family relations with the aristocracy, he at first avoided taking part in the concerns of state, both on account of the jealousy with which the multitude viewed this party, and because Cimon was already at its head. He therefore aimed, at first, only to gain the favor of the popular party. Cimon was munificent and affable; Pericles, on the contrary, shunned festivals and all public amusements. He was never seen abroad, but in the Prytaneum and the popular assembly, and his manners were characterized by gravity and dignity. As he was not a member of the Areopagus, he used all his influence to diminish the consideration of that body, and instigated his friend Ephialtes to make that tribunal an object of jealousy in the eyes of the people, and to procure the passage of a decree transferring the investigation and decision of most cases to other courts. His eloquence was so elevated and powerful, that it was said of him that he thundered and lightened in his speeches, and his countrymen called him the Olympian. He carefully avoided all that could displease the people, and even submitted to indignities with the greatest patience. It is said that a common citizen followed him to his house one evening from a popular assembly, reviling him at every step. He ordered a servant to light the man home with a torch. When the popular party procured the accusation of Cimon, Pericles was one of the judges. He conducted, however, with great moderation, and spoke of his distinguished fellow-citizen with due respect. The banishment of his rival removed all obstructions to the execution of his ambitious designs. As Cimon had fed and clothed the people, Pericles also provided for the wants of the needy from the public treasury. In the war which broke out between the Athenians and Lacedæmonians, B. C. 458, Pericles exposed himself to the greatest dangers in the unsuccessful engagement at Tanagra, and soon after invaded the Peloponnesus with a fleet and a small army. To please the people, who desired the return of Cimon, he caused a decree to be passed for his

recall. By means of his sister, however, Pericles had made a private agreement with Cimon, by which the command of the army was left to the latter, and the government of the state was to be in the hands of Pericles. On the death of Cimon, he became, as it were, prince of Athens; for, although the aristocracy set up against him Thucydides, the son of Melesias, a relation of Cimon, he was too unequal to maintain the opposition. "If I should throw him to the ground," said he once of Pericles, "he would say that he had never been prostrated, and would persuade the spectators to believe him." From this time, Pericles ruled the state, but without assuming the title of prince, and endeavored to occupy the people with the establishment of new colonies or warlike enterprises. By his great public works, he flattered the vanity of the Athenians, while he beautified the city, and employed many laborers and artists. To pay the expenses of these undertakings, he caused the public treasury of Greece to be transported from Delos to Athens, and justified this act of perfidy by saying that the money had been raised to defend the nation from the invasion of barbarians; and, as this end had been attained by the exertions of the Athenians, the allies had no further right to inquire into the expenditure of the funds. His personal integrity in pecuniary matters was above suspicion. Of this we have a remarkable example: During an expedition against Euboea, the Lacedæmonians invaded Attica, as the allies of the Megarians. Pericles averted an attack by bribing the tutor of the Spartan king. When he submitted his accounts for examination, ten talents were charged for secret services, and the Athenians were satisfied without any further account. Pericles finally made himself master of the important island of Euboea, B. C. 447, and, soon after, concluded a truce of thirty years with the Spartans. To set bounds to the popular power, which he had hitherto labored to increase, he now procured the revival of an old law, declaring no person a citizen of Athens whose father and mother were not both Athenian citizens, and caused 5000 individuals, who had before been free, to be sold as slaves. This act is a proof of the great influence of Pericles, and, doubtless, obtained the approbation of a majority of the citizens, whose importance was increased by a diminution of their numbers. Pericles took advantage of the armistice with Sparta to make war upon the Samians

(B. C. 440), who opposed the pretensions of Athens. He was partly persuaded to undertake this war by Aspasia. (q. v.) The expedition, in which she attended Pericles, ended in the subjugation of the island and the restoration of the democratic government. The Samians soon rose and expelled the Athenian garrison; but Pericles again reduced them to subjection. On his return to Athens, he delivered the celebrated funeral oration in memory of those who had perished in the expedition, which had such an effect upon his audience, that the women crowded about him, and wreathed his temples with flowers. Thucydides was banished in the struggles of parties, and the importance of Pericles was greatly increased, till the jealousy of the Athenians awoke, when they found those hopes abortive which had been excited by the events that preceded the Peloponnesian war. Some of the friends of Pericles became the objects of public prosecutions-Anaxagoras, his venerable instructer, on a charge of irreligion; Aspasia on account of her connexion with Pericles. He undertook to plead her cause himself, and was so affected that he forgot his dignity, and burst into tears. He procured her acquittal; but he withdrew Anaxagoras from the attacks of his enemies, by conducting him from Attica under his own protection. When the Spartans, who had assumed the protection of the smaller states of Greece, sent to Athens, demanding a compensation for the injuries which had been done to these states, and threatening war in case of refusal, Pericles persuaded the Athenians to reject the proposal, and thus became the author of the fatal Peloponnesian war. (See Peloponnesus.) Some maintain that his object was to keep his countrymen employed abroad, in order to avert their attention from his government, particularly as his enemies were daily increasing, and that Aspasia entertained a violent hatred against Sparta. The probability is, that Pericles, misled by his views of the dignity and importance of the Athenian republic, would consent to no concessions, particularly as such a measure would be fatal to his own greatness. At the commencement of the war (B. C. 431), Pericles recommended to the Athenians to turn all their attention to the defence of the city and to naval armaments, rather than to the protection of their territories. Accordingly, as he was made commanderin-chief, notwithstanding the murmurs of the Athenians, he allowed the superior forces of the Spartans and their allies to

advance to Acharnæ, in Attica, without resistance, and, at the same time, sent a fleet to the shores of Peloponnesus, to Locris and Ægina, which took twofold vengeance for the ravages in Attica. After the Peloponnesians had retired, he invaded the territory of Megaris, which had been the cause of the war. At the end of this campaign, he delivered a eulogy over those who had fallen in their country's service. The next year, a plague broke out at Athens, which made such dreadful havoc, that Pericles was obliged to summon all his fortitude to sustain his countrymen and himself. То оссиру their attention, he fitted out a large fleet, and sailed to Epidaurus; but the mortality among his troops prevented him fromeffecting any thing important. He returned with a small force; but the Athenians no longer put confidence in him. He was deprived of the command, and obliged to pay a heavy fine, though no particular crime was charged against him. The fickle people, however, soon recalled him to the head of the state, and gave him more power than he had before enjoyed. But, amid his numerous civil cares, he was afflicted by domestic calamities. His eldest son, Xanthippus, who had lived at variance with him, died of the plague. The same disease carried off his sister, and many of his nearest relatives and friends, and, among the rest, Paralus, his only remaining son by his first marriage. This affliction moved him to tears. To console him for this loss, the Athenians repealed the law which he had himself previously introduced, in regard to children whose parents were not both citizens, and thus placed his son by Aspasia among the citizens. But his strength was gone: he sunk into a lingering sickness, and died B. C. 429, in the third year of the Peloponnesian war. When he lay upon his death-bed, his friends, in their lamentations, spoke of his great achievements; but he suddenly started up and exclaimed, "In these things I have many equals; but this is my glory, that I have never caused an Athenian to wear mourning." By the death of Pericles, Athens lost her most distinguished citizen, to whom, although deficient in severe virtue, is not to be denied greatness of soul. His education enlightened his mind, and raised him above the prejudices of his age. His ambition was to give his country supremacy over all the states of Greece, and, while he ruled it, Athens maintained this rank both in an intellectual and political view. To Pericles the city was indebted for its

finest ornaments-the Parthenon, the Odeon, the Propylæum, the Long Walls numerous statues, and other works of art. The golden age of Grecian art, the age of Phidias (q. v.), ceased with Pericles. His name is therefore connected with the highest glory of art, science and power in Athens; and if he is accused of having conducted the city to the edge of that precipice from which she could not escape, yet he must receive the praise of having contributed greatly to make her the intellectual queen of all the states of antiquity.

PERIER, Casimir, formerly a banker, and member of the French chamber of deputies, in which he was one of the most distinguished liberal orators, was born at Grenoble, in 1777, and, after finishing his education at the college of the oratory in Lyons, entered the military service at an early age. He served with honor in the campaigns of Italy (1799 and 1800), but on the death of his father, a respectable merchant, he abandoned the profession of arms for mercantile business. In 1802, he established a banking house in company with his brother, in the management of which he acquired an intimate acquaintance with the most difficult and important questions of public credit and finance. Cotton manufactories, machine manufactories, and several other manufacturing establishments, were carried on by the brothers, and Casimir introduced improvements into the processes. In 1815 Casimir Périer published a pamphlet against the system of foreign loans, characterized by clearness and soundness of views, and in 1817 he was elected to represent the department of the Seine in the chamber of deputies. Here he was no less distinguished as the firm and eloquent advocate of constitutional principles, than as an enlightened and sagacious financier. In the revolution of 1830, he took a decided part in favor of the national liberties; was one of the deputation appointed to wait on marshal Marmont during the three days; a member of the municipal commission of the provisional government, July 28; but did not sign their declaration of the dethronement of Charles X. When Charles made his last effort to retain the throne, he ordered the duke of Mortemart to form a ministry, who made M. Périer minister of finance, and general Gérard that of war. August 5th, Périer was chosen president of the chambers, and on the 12th formed one of the first cabinet of the new king, without holding the port-folio of any