strict idealism, on Schelling's principles, by considering the absolute as the understanding conceiving of itself, and makes three divisions in his philosophy, logic, the philosophy of nature, and the philosophy of mind. Each of these systems has, at different periods, found many followers, who, with more or less success, have labored to extend them in different directions. Krug has united all the principal doctrines of Kant systematically in his Transcendental Synthetics. Bardili considered all philosophy as resting on the idea of the absolute, which he found in the act of thinking; he, therefore, treated logic as a source of real knowledge. Wagner and Eschenmayer endeavored to correct or to extend the doctrine of Schelling. Jacobi's doctrine on feeling and faith is of an original character. Schulze distinguished himself as an opponent of Reinhold by a limited scepticism, Platner by his aphorisms, and Herbart by his metaphysical fragments. In considering the many changes German philosophy has undergone in so short a time, we shall naturally feel inclined to reproach this mania for new systems; but the truth or error of any comprehensive view cannot be appreciated justly, until it is developed in a consistent form, and the more different systems can be compared, the more comprehensive and impartial will be our knowledge.

French Philosophy. Totally opposite to German philosophy is the modern French philosophy. While the former strives to explore the abysses of existence, and to comprehend the mysteries of human nature, and thus often loses itself in flights of imagination, the French, of late, have understood by philosophy little more than the critical investigation of those subjects which are comprehensible at first view, and have banished from philosophy all that cannot be grasped by the plainest common sense; and so far have they carried this system, that at one time it proved most dangerous to morality, the original principles of which are by no means susceptible of such plain and simple demonstration as was required by the French school; and we have little doubt that, to this day, sensualism, or the French philosophy, founded on Condillac's system, produces fatal effects. So much, indeed, do the French and Germans differ, that what the former call philosophy and metaphysics is, in fact, totally different from that which the latter designate by the same terms. It is also very characteristic

of the French people, that their modern philosophy may be said to have unfolded itself in fashionable society. Towards the end of the seventeenth century, a tone of light philosophy was introduced into polite circles, in opposition to the affected morality then in vogue, which, however, had some connexion with the old romantic spirit. Both systems had adherents in the world of fashion, under the patronage of ladies: at the head of one party was the spirituel Ninon de l'Enclos, with her philosophizing friend St. Evremond; at the head of the other, the amiable marchioness de Sevigné. Both the circles acquired literary celebrity; language attained the highest refinement, and conversation its greatest perfection; but the consequence was, that a conversational tone was given to literature. Descartes (q. v.), Arnauld (q. v.), (to whom is ascribed the Art de Penser), Nicole, De la Forge, and the deep-thinking Malebranche (q. v.), belong to another time. The direction which modern French philosophy has taken originated from the English philosopher Locke. (q.v.) On the doctrines of this acute reasoner a system of sensualism was founded by Etienne Bonnot de Condillac (born 1715, died 1780). He taught that the basis, the principle of all that is developed in our mind, is sensation (la faculté de sentir). All ideas, knowledge, faculties, even reflection, actions and customs, are successive transformations of this principle. "The sensation only changes its form, as the ice when it is dissolved into water, and evaporated in vapor." (See Condillac.) The simplicity of his method, and the clearness of his exposition, awakened the greatest interest. He became the leader of a school still predominating in France. The Encyclopædists (see Encyclopédie, the French) contributed most to its propagation, particularly Diderot, D'Alembert and Helvetius. The effect was striking: the most difficult of all sciences, which requires the deepest study and the most persevering reflection, was brought within the reach of the multitude; every one could talk about metaphysics. But it was overlooked that this system did not lead men a step nearer to the solution of the highest and most important problems. The system was carried farther and farther, not always in accordance with the views of the author, but according to the direction given by him. Sensation (the lowest degree of intellectual action, and that in which we are most dependent upon the external world) being now considered

PERGOLESI, Giovanni Battista, one of the most distinguished musicians, whose proper name was Giambattista Jesi, was born at Pergola (hence his name, Pergolesi), in the March, according to some in 1707, according to others in 1704. In 1717, he entered the Conservatorio dei poveri di Gesù Cristo at Naples, then under the direction of Gaetano Grecco. This great master initiated his pupil in all the secrets of the art. At the age of fourteen years, Pergolesi had distinguished himself by various compositions, in which melody was sacrificed to artifices of counterpoint; but no sooner had he left the Conservatorio, and studied the vocal compositions of Vinci and Hasse, than he changed his manner entirely. In his first opera, however, only some ariette were well received; but prince Stigliano judged favorably of Pergolesi's talents, and procured him employment (1730-34) at the Teatro nuovo. During this time, he also composed La serva Padrona, for the theatre San-Bartolomeo. But his genius was not satisfied with ordinary subjects: he seized an opportunity to make himself known at Fome by a more important composition, and wrote, in 1735, his Olimpiade, for the theatre Tordinone. Yet this opera, though of great merit, did not please much. Pergolesi now returned to Naples, and composed his Dixit and Laudate, the success of which afforded a compensation for the former coldness of the public. His health declined, and his friends induced him to go to Torre del Greco, at the foot of mount Vesuvius, which is considered salutary for pulmonary patients. Here he composed his far-famed Stabat Mater dolorosa, his cantate Orfeo, and the Salve, Regina, his last work. He died in 1739, at Puzzuoli, when his fame had Just begun to spread over Europe. The theatres and the churches resounded with

his productions. In Rome, his Olimpiade was represented anew, with the greatest magnificence, and its beauties were enthusiastically applauded. According to the universal opinion of the Italians, no one ever excelled him in musical expression. Some call him the Dominichino, others even the Raphael, of music; but he is censured for repetitions, an abrupt style, and transpositions which injure the text. Pergolesi inclines more to the soft than to the powerful; even his Stabat, according to the judgment of modern musicians, is somewhat weak. His manner is tinged with melancholy, originating, perhaps, from his feeble state of health.

PORTO RICO, or PUERTO RICO, an island belonging to Spain, one of the Great Antilles (of which group it is the smallest and most easterly), lies between lat. 17° 50 and 18° 32′ N., and between lon. 65° 43′ and 67° 10′ W., having the Atlantic on the north and the Caribbean sea on the south. It is separated from Hayti, on the west, by a channel twenty-five leagues broad. One hundred and ten miles in length, by thirty-six in breadth. Population, 130,000, of which 25,000 are slaves. Until 1815, Porto Rico was an expense to Spain; but since that time foreigners have been allowed to settle there; and it is now in a very flourishing condition. It has a fine climate, a fertile soil, and produces coffee, sugar, tobacco, cotton, fruits. The exports of the year 1830 were estimated at $2,500,000; imports at $2,000,000. The sugar crop of 1831 was estimated at 45,000 hogsheads, that of coffee at 125,000 quintals. Porto Rico, which was called by the natives (Arrowauks) Boriqua, was discovered by Columbus in 1493, and is said to have contained at that time 600,000 inhabitants, who were soon exterminated by the Spaniards.