PREFACE. UNIVERSITY CALIFORNIA have been wholly unacquainted. THERE are few things more diffi- | at the time when our translation they assign the name of the UNI- II. The language of the East I. The distinction between clean and unclean ANIMALS, forms an important part of the Mosaic ritual. Neither the indulgence of the former in the food of the Jews, nor the prohibition of the latter, was merely arbitrary, but founded, among other reasons, upon judicious rules of dietetic regimen, adapted primarily to the climate, or to the nature and qualities of the animals, as salutary or un-images are introduced from the wholesome, as proper or improper, to be eaten. To perceive the propriety of the regulations in this respect, it is highly necessary to determine what those animals were, and to point out those instincts, habits, and qualities on account of which they were either allowed or prohibited. works of nature, and metaphors drawn from the manners and economy of animals, the growth of trees, and the properties of plants; and unless we know precisely the animal, tree, or plant referred to, we cannot discern the propriety of the allusion, nor be suitably impressed with the full force of The natural history of foreign 1 NEWCOME's Historical View of Translacountries was very little known tions of the Bible. B which it was intended to illustrate. But these things, judiciously explained, serve to clear up many obscure passages, solve many difficulties, correct many wrong interpretations, and open new beauties in the sacred volume. To use the words of an author, whose opinion adds importance to my subject, "These illustrations, though they do not immediately rectify the faith or refine the morals of the reader, yet are by no means to be considered as superfluous niceties or useless speculations; for they often shew some propriety of allusion utterly undiscoverable by readers not skilled in the natural history of the East; and are often of more important use, as they remove some difficulty from narratives, or some obscurity from precepts.' the doctrine, precept, or narrative, ter was Palestine. With this we were less acquainted than with the remotest parts of India; and though the natural history of this remarkable country was the most necessary for divines and writers on the scriptures, who have used their greatest endeavours to know the animals therein mentioned, yet they could not, with any degree of certainty, determine which they were, before some one had been there, and informed himself of the natural history of the place." HASSELQUIST, who attended this course of lectures, was very desirous of being the first who should supply this important desideratum, and was determined to accomplish it. Having qualified himself for the undertaking by the study of the Arabic and other eastern languages, in 1749 he was conveyed by the Levant Company to Smyrna, and for two years was engaged in making collections of plants, &c. in Egypt and the Holy Land. He died in the midst of these useful labours; but his papers were published by LINNÆUS, in 1757; and contain many articles which throw much light upon the Natural History of the Bible. III. The incidental references which are made in the Bible to animals, vegetables, &c. confirm, also, the truth of the scripture history; for they shew that the writers were in the country, and conversant with the scenes which they describe, by indications of the climate, creatures, and productions peculiar to those places, and which could be familiar only to persons so situated. The want of that accurate information on many subjects, which can be obtained only on the spot and by personal inspection, is especially felt in our investigation of the natural history of the sacred scriptures. This is strongly expressed by the celebrated LINNEUS in the account which he published of Dr. HASSELQUIST. His words are: "In one of my botanical lectures, in the year 1747, I enumerated the countries of which we knew the natural history, and those of which we were ignorant. Amongst the lat 2 Dr. SAMUEL JOHNSON, in his Life of THOMAS BROWNE. There was an English translation in 1766, which has now become scarce; 66 a circumstance," says Dr. PULTENY, in his view of the writings of LINNAEUS, "sufficiently indicative of the intrinsic value of the work, which, for its originality, as well as accuracy and variety of information, must always rank high among books of travels." The learned J. D. MICHAELIS, in an oration delivered at Gottingen in 1753, recommended "a mission of learned men into the East, that, by travelling through Syria, Palestine, and Egypt, and observing the animals, plants, &c. of those regions, and investigating their nature and qualities, they might ascertain those which are named in Holy Writ." Having projected the plan of such a mission, which should embrace every thing connected with the history, geography, antiquities, natural productions, language, and manners of those countries, that could serve to throw any light upon the sacred records, he proposed the subject to Count BERNSTORFF in the year 1756; who recommended it to his royal master FREDERICK the Fifth of Denmark. The king heartily seconded these views, engaged to defray the whole expense of the undertaking, and honoured its projector by committing to his charge the selection of the travellers, and the arrangement of the plan in all its details 3. MICHAELIS drew up a set of questions upon interesting articles, about which inquiries were to be made, and which discover how much even the most learned man in Europe felt in doubt respecting these subjects in the Natural History of the Bible, and of how great importance he considered a satisfactory explanation of them. Unhappily, M. FORSKAL, the learned naturalist on this expedition, died in Arabia, before he had composed any regular work in reply to the questions. NIEBUHR, his fellow traveller, however, published from his papers a scientific catalogue of articles, which is valuable for a few incidental remarks, and as giving the names by which animals and plants are now called in those regions. Dr. SHAW, whose travels I have often quoted, observes that "the names by which animals, &c. are now called in the eastern countries, will be of great assistance in determining sacred natural history; for some of them, it may be presumed, continue to be the very same; whilst many others may prove to be traditional, or derivatives from the original." In 1793, I published a small 3 Dr. SMITH'S Preface to his Translation of MICHAELIS on the Laws of Moses, p. 10. volume with a similar title to the The following were my rules of investigation. I. To examine all the passages of scripture where the name of the animal, plant, &c. which I was examining, occurs; in order to ascertain its nature and qualities, by such a reference to particular places as they separately furnish, either by direct description or metaphorical allusion; and, by comparing them together, endeavour to identify the subject. II. Look out the name in the Lexicons of CASTEL, BUXTORF, MENINSKI, PARKHURST, and others, with regard to the meaning they affix to it, or the root from which it is derived; believing that the names of animals, plants, &c. were not arbitrary, but founded on some apparent and predominant quality or property, sufficient to give them a designation at first. III. Trace the word again, in 4" Tot in ea sunt emendata, tot dispuncta, recocta, limata, immutata, tanta insuper accessio ubique facta est, ut pristin, quantum erat, lineamento plerumque disparente, exeat omnino nova." SELDEN, Praf. in mare Claus. every place where it occurs, | ly ingenious and learned, and through all the versions of the more pertinent illustration and scriptures, to discover how it was proof. understood and rendered by the most ancient interpreters. IV. Search for it in all the modern commentaries, critics, and new translations. V. Consult the authors who have written upon the subject of the Natural History of the Bible, for their opinions and explanations. VI. Avail myself of all the information contained in the ancient and modern writers of natural history, and the incidental mention of animals, plants, &c. in books of travels. This investigation, diligently pursued, often employed a whole day to ascertain only one article, the result of which is, perhaps, comprised in a single sentence. Of my authorities, and the use which I have made of them, it becomes me to speak with grateful acknowledgment. The first and principal of these is BOCHART, who, in his Hierozoicon, has, in the most learned researches, traced the names of the ANIMALS mentioned in scripture through the different languages and dialects of the East, and in most cases has been able by some evident similarity of sound, or some other striking circumstance, with sufficient clearness to identify each individual. He had the opportunity of consulting the natural history of DAMIR 5 and other Arabian authors; and could bring from all the treasuries of ancient learning the authorities for his decisions: so that there has seldom been found reason to depart from his opinion. A few instances only have occurred, where it appeared to be outweighed by equal 5 Historia Animalium, Arabica, ordine alphabetico disposita, ubi multa de eorum nominibus, natura, proprietatibus, qualitate, virtute, natali loco et educatione, referuntur, &c. Anno Hegira, 773, Script. A. D. 1371. The Physique Sacrée of SCHEUCHZER, in eight volumes folio, is a magnificent work, with which a noble friend in Paris supplied me. It has contributed greatly to en rich my articles. With regard to PLANTS, I have availed myself of the elaborate researches of HILLER in the Hierophyticon, and of CELSIUS in his Hierobotanicon; carefully consulting, at the same time, DIOSCORIDES and the elder PLINY among the ancients, and ALPINUS, RAUWOLF, HASSELQUIST, SHAW, RUSSEL, FORSKAL, and others, among the moderns. Mr. BRUCE, in his Travels to discover the Source of the Nile, collected specimens of natural history in Egypt, Arabia, Abyssinia, and Nubia. His celebrated work has been read with pleasure and advantage, and some extracts have been made from it. In describing the plants, birds, and beasts which he saw in his travels, he informs us, that he "made it a constant rule to give the preference to such of each kind as are mentioned in Scripture, and concerning which doubts have arisen. Many learned men (says he) have employed themselves with success upon these topics, yet much remains still to do; for it has generally happened that those perfectly acquainted with the language in which the Scriptures were written, have never travelled, nor seen the animals of Judea, Palestine, or Arabia; and again, such as have travelled in these countries and seen the animals in question, 6"The frequent recurrence of metaphorical expressions to natural objects, and particularly to plants and to trees, is so characteristic of the Hebrew poetry that it might be almost called the botanical poetry. In the Sacred Scriptures, there are upwards of two hundred and fifty botanical terms; which none use so frequently as the poets." MICHAELIS's Note upon LOWTH'S Lect. vi. have been either not at all, or In the most unrestrained terms I but superficially, acquainted with acknowledge that I have borrowthe original languages of Scrip-ed from all authors of established ture. It has been my earnest de- reputation, with freedom, such sire to employ the advantage I materials as I could find, after possess in both these requisites having deliberately considered to throw as much light as possible and impartially collated their upon the doubts that have arisen. accounts; that, in appropriating I hope I have done this freely, such information as was to be fairly, and candidly. If I have collected from those writers, I at all succeeded, I have obtained have not scrupled to use their my reward." own words where they wrote in English, and to translate where in any other language: yet, though I have not been particular in giving credit for every extract, or in always using inverted commas, I have aimed to point out carefully my authorities under every article. If an apology be necessary, I plead that of LIPSIUS (ad cap. 1. The Ichthyologia Biblica of RUDBECK is a principal authority for the FISHES mentioned in Scripture; SCHEUCHZER for the SERPENTS and INSECTS; and LEMNIUS and BRAUNIUS for the MINERALS and PRECIOUS STONES. ligna ab aliis accipio, ædificii tamen extructio et forma tota nostra est. Architectus ego sum, sed materiam varie undique conduxi. Nec arenarum sane textus ideo melior, quia ex se fila gignunt, nec noster vilior, quia ex alienis libamus ut apes." Of the Continuator of CALMET, particularly the volume which bears the title of " SCRIPTURE IL-1. 1. monitor polit): " Lapides et LUSTRATED," considerable use has been made; but it will be found that in several places I have differed from that ingenious writer, who indulges sometimes in great freedom of remark, and whose criticisms are very frequently merely conjectural. My extracts were made from this work before there was any expectation that it would be reprinted in this country, and therefore I quoted with greater freedom, and copied with greater copiousness; but, as it is now in circulation among us, I have cancelled some of my original extracts, lest I should be thought to have made my own work too much a compilation from that. I have subjoined a list of the principal books which I have consulted, with a reference to the edition which I used; and would still mention, that in the notes will be found references to more than twice the number in the following catalogue. In short, I have spared neither labour nor expense in the collection of materials; and have aimed to make my work a useful and valuable treasure of information, and worthy of the approbaI have endeavoured to substan- tion of the public. As it was tiate every article which I have originally undertaken with a view introduced, by proofs stated with to general information, and deall possible clearness, and illus- signed in particular for the intrate it by criticisms and explana-struction of the less informed and tions; yet I lay claim to no praise but that of having brought into a regular form such information as I could collect from the best and most unexceptionable sources 7. 7" Est benignum, et plenum ingenui pudoris, fateri per quos profiteris." PLIN. Nat. Hist. præf. the young, all technical terms have, as much as possible, been avoided, and short and natural descriptions attempted. I have aimed to make even mere verbal criticism so plain and intelligible as to be within the comprehension of common readers; and |