or distorted, or inflated, yet retains those qualities which essentially divide it from all others; so that hemlock continues to be poison, and the violet does not cease to emit its odour in whatever soil it may grow. We consider our own nature too superficially. We look on all that in ourselves with which we can discover a resemblance in others; and consider those. resemblances as the materials of moral knowledge. It is in the differences that it actually consists. ION; OR, OF THE ILIAD; SOCRATES and ION. Translated from Plato. SOCRATES.-Hail to thee, O Ion! from whence returnest thou amongst us now ?-from thine own native Ephesus? ION. No, Socrates; I come from Epidaurus and the feasts in honour of Esculapius. SOCRATES.-Had the Epidaurians instituted a contest of rhapsody in honour of the God? ION. And not in rhapsodies alone; there were contests in every species of music. SOCRATES. And in which did you contend? And what was the success of your efforts? ION. I bore away the first prize at the games, O Socrates. SOCRATES.-Well done! You have now only to consider how you shall win the Panathenæa. ION. That may also happen, God willing. SOCRATES.-Your profession, O Ion, has often appeared to me an enviable one. For, together with the nicest care of your person, and the most studied elegance of dress, it imposes upon you the necessity of a familiar acquaintance with many and excellent poets, and especially with Homer, the most admirable of them all. Nor is it merely because you can repeat the verses of this great poet, that I envy you, but because you fathom his inmost thoughts. For he is no rhapsodist who does not understand the whole scope and intention of the poet, and is not capable of interpreting it to his audience. This he cannot do without a full comprehension of the meaning of the author he undertakes to illustrate; and worthy, indeed, of envy are those who can fulfil these conditions. ION.-Thou speakest truth, O Socrates. And, indeed, I have expended my study particularly on this part of my profession. I flatter myself that no man living excels me in the interpretation of Homer; neither Metrodorus of Lampsacus, nor Stesimbrotus the Thasian, nor Glauco, nor any other rhapsodist of the present times can express so many various and beautiful thoughts upon Homer as I can. SOCRATES.-I am persuaded of your eminent skill, O Ion. You will not, I hope, refuse me a specimen of it? ION.-And, indeed, it would be worth your while to hear me declaim upon Homer. I deserve a golden crown from his admirers. At SOCRATES. And I will find leisure some day or other to request you to favour me so far. present, I will only trouble you with one question. Do you excel in explaining Homer alone, or are you conscious of a similar power with regard to Hesiod and Archilochus ? ION. I possess this high degree of skill with regard to Homer alone, and I consider that sufficient. SOCRATES. Are there any subjects upon which Homer and Hesiod say the same things? ION.-Many, as it seems to me. SOCRATES.-Whether do you demonstrate these things better in Homer or Hesiod? ION. In the same manner, doubtless; inasmuch as they say the same words with regard to the same things. SOCRATES. But with regard to those things in which they differ ;-Homer and Hesiod both treat of divination, do they not? ION. Certainly. SOCRATES. Do you think that you or a diviner would make the best exposition, respecting all that these poets say of divination, both as they agree and as they differ? ION. A diviner probably. SOCRATES. Suppose you were a diviner, do you not think that you could explain the discrepancies of those poets on the subject of your profession, if you understand their argument? ION. Clearly so. SOCRATES.-How does it happen then that you are possessed of skill to illustrate Homer, and not Hesiod, or any other poet in an equal degree? Is the subject-matter of the poetry of Homer different from all other poets'? Does he not principally treat of war and social intercourse, and of the distinct functions and characters of the brave man and the coward, the professional and private person, the mutual relations which subsist between the Gods and men; together with the modes of their intercourse, the phænomena of Heaven, the secrets of Hades, and the origin of Gods and heroes? Are not these the materials from which Homer wrought his poem? ION.-Assuredly, O Socrates. SOCRATES. And the other poets, do they not treat of the same matter? ION. Certainly but not like Homer. ION.-Oh! far worse. SOCRATES. Then Homer treats of them better than they? ION.-Oh! Jupiter !-how much better ! SOCRATES.-Amongst a number of persons employed in solving a problem of arithmetic, might not a person know, my dear Ion, which had given the right answer? ION.-Certainly. SOCRATES. The same person who had been aware of the false one, or some other? ION.-The same, clearly. SOCRATES. That is, some one who understood arithmetic? ION.—Certainly. SOCRATES.-Among a number of persons giving their opinions on the wholesomeness of different foods, whether would one person be capable to pronounce upon the rectitude of the opinions of those who judged rightly, and another on the erroneousness of those which were incorrect, or would the same person be competent to decide respecting them both? ION.-The same, evidently. SOCRATES.-What would you call that person? ION. A physician. SOCRATES.-We may assert then, universally, that the same person who is competent to determine the truth, is competent also to determine the falsehood of whatever assertion is advanced on the same subject; and, it is manifest, that he who cannot judge respecting the falsehood, or unfitness of what is said upon a given subject, is equally incompetent to determine upon its truth or beauty? ION.-Assuredly. SOCRATES. The same person would then be competent or incompetent for both? ION.-Yes. SOCRATES.-Do you not say that Homer and the other poets, and among them Hesiod and Archilochus, speak of the same things, but unequally; one better and the other worse? ION. And I speak truth. SOCRATES.-But if you can judge of what is well said by the one, you must also be able to judge of what is ill said by another, inasmuch as it expresses less correctly. ION.-It should seem so. SOCRATES. Then, my dear friend, we should not err if we asserted that Ion possessed a like power of illustration respecting Homer and all other poets; especially since he confesses that the same person must be esteemed a competent judge of all those who speak on the same subjects; inasmuch as those subjects are understood by him when spoken of by one, and the subject-matter of almost all the poets is the same. ION. What can be the reason then, O Socrates, that when any other poet is the subject of conversation I cannot compel my attention, and I feel utterly unable to declaim anything worth talking of, and positively go to sleep? But when any one makes mention of Homer, my mind applies itself without effort to the subject; I awaken as if it were from a trance, and a profusion of eloquent expressions suggest themselves involuntarily? SOCRATES. It is not difficult to suggest the cause of this, my dear friend. You are evidently unable to declaim on Homer according to art and knowledge; for did your art endow you with this faculty, you would be equally capable of exerting it with regard to any other of the poets. Is not poetry, as an art or a faculty, a thing entire and one? ION.-Assuredly. SOCRATES. The same mode of consideration must be admitted with respect to all arts which are severally one and entire. Do you desire to hear what I understand by this, O Ion? ION.-Yes, by Jupiter, Socrates, I am delighted with listening to you wise men. SOCRATES. It is you who are wise, my dear Ion; you rhapsodists, actors, and the authors of the poems you recite. I, like an unprofessional and private man, can only speak the truth. Observe how common, vulgar, and level to the comprehension of any one, is the question which I now ask relative to the same consideration belonging to one entire art. Is not painting an art whole and entire ? ION.-Certainly. SOCRATES. Did you ever know a person competent to judge of the paintings of Polygnotus, the son of Aglaophon, and incompetent to judge of the production of any other painter; who, on the supposition of the works of other painters being exhibited to him, was wholly at a loss, and very much inclined to go to sleep, and lost all faculty of reasoning on the subjeet; but when his opinion was required of Polygnotus, or any one single painter you please, awoke, paid attention to the subject, and discoursed on it with great eloquence and sagacity? ION.-Never, by Jupiter! SOCRATES. Did you ever know any one very skilful in determining the merits of Daedalus, the son of Metion, Epius, the son of Panopus, Theodorus the Samian, or any other great sculptor, who was immediately at a loss, and felt sleepy the moment any other sculptor was mentioned ? ION. I never met with such a person certainly. SOCRATES.-Nor, do I think, that you ever met with a man professing himself a judge of poetry and rhapsody, and competent to criticise either Olympus, Thamyris, Orpheus, or Phemius of Ithaca, the rhapsodist, who, the moment he came to Ion the Ephesian, felt himself quite at a loss, utterly incompetent to judge whether he rhapsodised well or ill. ION. I cannot refute you, Socrates, but of this I am conscious to myself: that I excel all men in the copiousness and beauty of my illustrations of Homer, as all who have heard me will confess, and with respect to other poets, I am deserted of this power. It is for you to consider what may be the cause of this distinction. SOCRATES.-I will tell you, O Ion, what appears to me to be the cause of this inequality of power. It is that you are not master of any art for the illustration of Homer, but it is a divine influence which moves you, like that which resides in the stone called Magnet by Euripides, and Heraclea by the people. For not only does this stone possess the power of attracting iron rings, but it can communicate to them the power of attracting other rings; so that you may see sometimes a long chain of rings, and other iron substances, attached and suspended one to the other by this influence. And as the power of the stone circulates through all the links of this series, and attaches each to each, so the Muse, communicating through those whom she has first inspired, to all others capable of sharing in the inspiration, the influence of that first enthusiasm, creates a chain and a succession. For the authors of those great poems which we admire, do not attain to excellence through the rules of any art, but they utter their beautiful melodies of verse in a state of inspiration, and, as it were, possessed by a spirit not their own. Thus the composers of lyrical poetry create those admired songs of theirs in a state of divine insanity, like the Corybantes, who lose all control over their reason in the enthusiasm of the sacred dance; and, during this supernatural possession, are excited to the rhythm and harmony which they communicate to men. Like the Bacchantes, who, when possessed by the God draw honey and milk from the rivers, in which, when they come to their senses, they find nothing but simple water. For the souls of the poets, as poets tell us, have this peculiar ministration in the world. They tell us that these souls, flying like bees from flower to flower, and wandering over the gardens and the meadows and the honey-flowing fountains of the Muses, return to us laden with the sweetness of melody; and arrayed as they are in the plumes of rapid imagination, they speak truth. For a poet is indeed a thing ethereally light, winged, and sacred, nor can he compose anything worth calling poetry until he becomes inspired, and, as it were, mad, or whilst any reason remains in him. For whilst a man retains any portion of the thing called reason, he is utterly incompetent to produce poetry or to vaticinate. Thus, those who declaim various and beautiful poetry upon any subject, as for instance upon Homer, are not enabled to do so by art or study; but every rhapsodist or poet, whether dithyrambic, encomiastic, choral, epic, or iambic, is excellent in proportion to the extent of his participation in the divine influence, and the degree in which the Muse itself has descended on him. In other respects, poets may be sufficiently ignorant and incapable. For they do not compose according to any art which they have acquired, but from the impulse of the divinity within them; for did they know any rules of criticism according to which they could compose beautiful verses upon one subject, they would be able to exert the same faculty with respect to all or any other. The God seems purposely to have deprived all poets, prophets, and soothsayers of every particle of reason and understanding, the better to adapt them to their employment as his ministers and interpreters; and that we, their auditors, may acknowledge that those who write so beautifully, are possessed, and address us, inspired by the God. [Tynnicus the Chalcidean, is a manifest proof of this, for he never before composed any poem worthy to be remembered; and yet, was the author of that Paan which everybody sings, and which excels almost every other hymn, and which he, himself, acknowledges to have been inspired by the Muse. And, thus, it appears to me, that the God proves beyond a doubt, that these transcendant poems are not human as the work of men, but divine as coming from the God. Poets then are the interpreters of the divinitieseach being possessed by some one deity; and to make this apparent, the God designedly inspires the worst poets with the sublimest verse. Does it seem to you that I am in the right, O Ion? ION.-Yes, by Jupiter! My mind is enlightened by your words, O Socrates, and it appears to me that great poets interpret to us through some divine election of the God. SOCRATES.-And do not you rhapsodists interpret poets? ION. We do. SOCRATES. Thus you interpret the interpreters ? SOCRATES. Remember this, and tell me; and do not conceal that which I ask. When you declaim well, and strike your audience with admiration; whether you sing of Ulysses rushing upon the threshold of his palace, discovering himself to the suitors, and pouring his shafts out at his feet; or of Achilles assailing Hector; or those affecting passages concerning Andromache, or Hecuba, or Priam, are you then self-possessed? or, rather, are you not rapt and filled with such enthusiasm by the deeds you recite, that you fancy yourself in Ithaca or Troy, or wherever else the poem transports you? ION.-You speak most truly, Socrates, nor will I deny it; for, when I recite of sorrow, my eyes fill with tears; and when of fearful or terrible deeds, my hair stands on end, and my heart beats fast. SOCRATES.-Tell me, Ion, can we call him in his senses, who weeps while dressed in splendid garments, and crowned with a golden coronal, not losing any of these things? and is filled with fear when surrounded by ten thousand friendly persons, not one among whom desires to despoil or injure him? ION. To say the truth, we could not. SOCRATES. Do you often perceive your audience moved also? ION.-Many among them, and frequently. I, standing on the rostrum, see them weeping, with eyes fixed earnestly on me, and overcome by my declamation. I have need so to agitate them; for if they weep, I laugh, taking their money; if they should laugh, I must weep, going without it. SOCRATES.-Do you not perceive that your auditor is the last link of that chain which I have described as held together through the power of the magnet? You rhapsodists and actors are the middle links, of which the poet is the first-and through all these the God influences whichever mind he selects, as they conduct this power one to the other; and thus, as rings from the stone, so hangs a long series of chorus-dancers, teachers, and disciples from the Muse. Some poets are influenced by one Muse, some by another; we call them possessed, and this word really expresses the truth, for they are held. Others, who are interpreters, are inspired by the first links, the poets, and are filled with enthusiasm, some by one, some by another; some by Orpheus, some by Musæus, but the greater number are possessed and inspired by Homer. You, O Ion, are influenced by Homer. If you recite the works of any other poet, you get drowsy, and are at a loss what to say; but when you hear any of the compositions of that poet you are roused, your thoughts are excited, and you grow eloquent ;-for what you say of Homer is not derived from any art or knowledge, but from divine inspiration and possession. As the Corybantes feel acutely the melodies of him by whom they are inspired, and abound with verse and gesture for his songs alone, and care for no other; thus, you, O Ion, are eloquent when you expound Homer, and are barren of words with regard to every other poet. And this explains the question you asked, wherefore Homer, and no other poet, inspires you with eloquence. It is that you are thus excellent in your praise, not through science, but from divine inspiration. ION. You say the truth, Socrates. Yet, I am surprised that you should be able to persuade me that I am possessed and insane when I praise Homer. I think I shall not appear such to you when you hear me. SOCRATES.-I desire to hear you, but not before you have answered me this one question. What subject does Homer treat best? for, surely, he does not treat all equally. ION. You are aware that he treats of everything. SOCRATES.-Does Homer mention subjects on which you are ignorant? SOCRATES.-Enough. Now, O Ion, would a physician or a charioteer be the better judge as to Homer's sagacity on this subject? ION. Of course, a charioteer. SOCRATES.-Because he understands the artor from what other reason? ION. From his knowledge of the art. SOCRATES.-For one science is not gifted with the power of judging of another-a steersman, for instance, does not understand medicine? ION. Without doubt. SOCRATES.-Nor a physician, architecture ? SOCRATES. Is it not thus with every art? If we are adepts in one, we are ignorant of another. But first tell me, do not all arts differ one from the other? ION. They do. SOCRATES. For you, as well as I, can testify that when we say an art is the knowledge of one thing, we do not mean that it is the knowledge of another. ION.-Certainly. SOCRATES.-For, if each art contained the knowledge of all things, why should we call them by different names? we do so that we may distinguish them one from the other. Thus, you as well as I, know that these are five fingers; and if I asked you whether we both meant the same thing or another, when we speak of arithmetic-would you not say the same? ION.-Yes. SOCRATES.And tell me, when we learn one art, we must both learn the same things with regard to it; and other things if we learn another? ION.-Certainly. SOCRATES. And he who is not versed in an art, is not a good judge of what is said or done with respect to it? Οἴνῳ Πραμνείῳ, ἐπὶ δ ̓ αἴγειον κνῆ τυρὸν Does it belong to the medical or rhapsodical art, to determine whether Homer speaks rightly on this subject? ION. The medical. SOCRATES.-And when he says Ἡ δὲ μολυβδαίνῃ ἰκέλη ἐς βυσσὸν ἵκανεν, Η τε κατ ̓ ἀγραύλοιο βοὺς κέρας ἐμμεμαυία Ερχεται ὠμηστῇσι μετ ̓ ἰχθύσι πῆμα φέρουσα.† I. ú. 80. Does it belong to the rhapsodical or the piscatorial art, to determine whether he speaks rightly or not? ION.-Manifestly to the piscatorial art. SOCRATES.-Consider whether you are not inspired to make some such demand as this to me:-Come, Socrates, since you have found in Homer an accurate description of these arts, assist me also in the inquiry as to his competence on the subject of soothsayers and divination; and how far he speaks well or ill on such subjects; for he often treats of them in the Odyssey, and especially when he introduces Theoclymenus the Soothsayer of the Melampians, prophesying to the Suitors :Δαίμονι, τί κακὸν τόδε πάσχετε ; νυκτὶ μὲν ὑμέων Εἱλύαται κεφαλαί τε προσωπά τε νέρθε τε γυια, Οἰμωγὴ δὲ δέδηε, δεδάκρυνται δὲ παρειαί. Ιεμένων ερεβόσδε ὑπὸ ζόφον· ἠέλιος δὲ Εἰδώλων τε πρέον πρόθυρον, πλείη δέ καὶ αὐλὴ Οὐρανοῦ ἐξαπόλωλε, κακὴ δ' επδέδρομεν ἀχλύς.† Odyss. ú. 351. Often too in the Iliad, as at the battle at the walls; for he there says— Όρνις γάρ σφιν ἐπῆλθε περησέμεναι μεμαῶσιν, Αἰετὸς ὑψιπέτης, ἐπ' ἀριστερὰ λαὸν ἐέργων, Φοινήεντα δράκοντα φέρων ὀνύχεσσι πέλωρον, Ζωὸν, ἔτ ̓ ἀσπαίροντα· καὶ οὔπω λήθετο χάρμης. Κόψε γὰρ αὐτὸν ἔχοντα κατὰ στῆθος παρὰ δειρὴν, * Tempered in this, the nymph of form divine, † She plunged, and instant shot the dark profound: O race to death devote! with Stygian shade Pope, Book 20. |