seems, however, good reason to believe that some impurity in the charcoal, and not the charcoal itself, was fused; and hence the apparent increase in hardness. Could it once be really fused, it is probable that, like many other bodies, it would crystallize in cooling, and thus form the diamond. By the application of intense heat, the diamond can be made to burn away in the same manner as charcoal, and to form precisely the same gaseous result as would be obtained from a piece of pure charcoal of the same weight. Fig. 1. The apparatus employed for exhibiting the results of the combustion of the diamond is here shown. It consists of a glass globe, having a large aperture; the stop-cock, which screws into this cap, has a jet, ▲, rising from it, nearly into the centre of the globe; this is destined to convey a small stream of hydrogen, which is ignited by electricity, by means of the conducting wires, cc; the knot, D, communicating with an electrical machine. At the upper part of the jet is a little platinum cup, pierced full of holes, which serves as a grate to hold the diamonds. In using this apparatus, the globe is first exhausted of its air by the air-pump, and filled with oxygen gas; a stream of hydrogen is then forced in by means of a bladder containing this gas, which is ignited at the jet by means of an electric spark: the hydrogen flame heats the cup and diamonds white-hot: the hydrogen is removed, and the diamonds will then burn with a strong white heat, converting the oxygen of the globe into carbonic acid gas. A fabulous account is given by Pliny of the dissolving of the diamond for the lapidary's use, which is sufficient to prove that the ancients were aware of the property of its powder or dust for cutting, engraving, and polishing other stones. In fact, they carried the art of gem-sculpture to great perfection by its means, while they were wholly unacquainted with the art of cutting the diamond itself. They satisfied themselves with such as were polished naturally, and these were valued according to the beauty and perfection of their crytallization and transparency. Until the middle of the fifteenth century the art of cutting and polishing the diamond was unknown in Europe. It is said to have been first invented by Louis de Berquin, a native of Bruges, in 1456. The natural form assumed by the diamond is the same as that assumed by the crystals of alum, namely, an octohedron, which consists of two foursided pyramids, joined together base to base. The line passing round the common base, separating the pyramids, is called the girdle; and the imaginary line, joining the two summits, or points, is called the axis. The clasp of the dress of Charlemagne, which is preserved at the Abbey of St. Denis to the present time, contains four large uncut diamonds of this shape, which must indeed have been the only form of diamond known to the ancients, since they were unacquainted with the mode of cutting them. Fig. 2. The first operation in preparing a rough diamond is to grind away some or all of the faces or triangular surfaces, in such a manner as to reduce the girdle to the form of a perfect square. It is also desirable that each side of this square should be, as nearly as convenient, equal to about half the length of the axis. The stone is then fit to be cut into either a brilliant, or a rose diamond; which are almost the only forms in which diamonds are now cut. In the rose diamond one of the pyramids is cut into a kind of dome, covered with triangular facets, and terminating in a point. This forms the projecting part when the diamond is set, and is called the table side. The part on the other side of the girdle is called the collet, and is imbedded in the cavity made to receive the stone. In rose diamonds the collet is much more shallow and less cut, than the table side; but, in brilliants, the collet is about twice as deep as the projecting portion, which latter does not terminate in a point, but has an octagonal flat surface called the table. Heat is often applied to diamonds with very beneficial effect, and is found to dissipate the flaws, and coloured specks and veins, which are so common in them. Beckmann states that he once saw a diamond subjected to heat, in order to the removal of a large brown spot which greatly impaired its beauty. The effect of the heat was to disperse the matter of the spot throughout the whole stone, and cause it to assume a rich and equally diffused red colour; and it was in consequence sold at a great profit, as a red diamond. Another diamond which had a spot apparently similar was then treated in the same manner, but in this case, the impurity spread, and the whole gem assumed a blackish hue which greatly diminished its beauty and value. The powder of the diamond is not only the best that can be used by the lapidary and gem engraver, but it is also more economical than emery, or any other material for cutting, engraving, and polishing hard stones. The extensive use of the diamond to glaziers and glass cutters is well known. The glazier's diamond is set in a steel socket, and attached to a wooden handle, not much larger than a pencil. The point of the natural crystal alone is available for their use, for it is a remarkable fact, that when diamonds are cut or split they will not answer the same purpose; they will scratch the glass, but it will not break along the scratch, as it does when a point of the natural crystal is used. In that part of the process of engraving called etching, an application of the diamond has been made, which is of great importance to the art. Steel points were formerly used called etching-needles, but these so soon became blunt by friction against the copper, that it was impossible to make what are called flat or even tints, but the diamond being turned to a conical point, or otherwise cut to a proper form, is not worn away by the friction of the copper, and consequently the lines drawn by it are of equal thickness. Mr. Lowry the eminent engraver, who made this application of the diamond some years ago, caused his diamond etching points to be turned in a lathe, by holding a thin splinter of diamond against them as a chisel. THE POLISH JEWS. THE spread of the Hebrew race throughout Poland is one of the most singular phenomena in the history of modern nations. From the Black Sea to the Baltic, from Riga and Danzig to Odessa, and in every intermediate town, the Jews have risen into a degree of weight and influence, as well as predominance in point of numbers, to which none of the children of Israel in any other country can make the slightest pretension. There is not a town in the extensive track, to which I refer, in which they have not monopolized every avocation connected with trade, mechanics, and manufactures, save and except the crafts of the smith and carpenter, and no business is to be transacted without their intervention, however important or trivial. The nobleman must employ a Jew to sell his grain, and the master of a family cannot obtain a steward, servant, cook, or even a teacher for his children, excepting through one of the fraternity: he is the land-agent for letting property, the collector for getting in moneys, the factor for purchasing goods and stores,-nay, I scarcely overstep the truth when I affirm, that, without the aid of a son of Abraham, you can neither dire, nor ride, nor travel, nor get a night's lodgings, nor dress yourself. It is not long since that the Jews were the exclusive farmers of all the duties, mines, and salt-works in Poland; and even now they hold the collecting of the turnpike and highway rates, and the bridge-tolls, as well as the distilleries, almost entirely in their hands. Every nobleman in Poland, whether in town or country, has an Israelite for his factotum, without whom he would be like a human trunk sans arms or legs. Even in negociating for the hire of a carriage and horses, the proprietor did not dare to deal with us but through a Jewish agent. During the middle ages, when Poland became great enough to claim rank among European nations, and her conquests, affluence, and thirst for civilized enjoyments, rendered the cultivation of arts, manufactures, and commerce necessary to her social existence, there was not any intermediate class between the nobleman and peasant,-in fact, no middle rank in society capable of supplying the void. In 1264, therefore, Boleslaus, then sovereign of Poland, bethought himself of at once creating such a class, by inviting the Jews to settle among his subjects. Germany furnished his land with mechanics and dealers, and in a few short years it was overspread with them as if by magic. The character of the two races, however dissimilar it was, fitted them for associating together. The Jew was uncleanly, and so was the Pole; here, then, there was no stumbling-block in the way: the Pole was rash and reckless, the Jew peaceable and patient; the Pole is fond of exercising power, the Jew bends quietly to it; the Pole allows no might or right to any but an equal, the Jew contends for no right which is not common property; with all this, the Pole is generous and extravagant, while none may surpass the Jew in profiting by other's foibles; the Pole knows nothing of accounts, the Jew has them at his fingers' ends; the Pole lives but for the present day, and is at sea in the hour of need, while the Jew never leaps without looking, and comes to the Pole's rescue whenever the sky lowers; in fine, the Pole is afraid of work, the Jew neither of toil nor trouble. The black-eyed daughter of Israel was a mainstay of the new community; for many an Esther exercised sovereign sway at the court of Warsaw, particularly the favourite mistress of Casimir the Great, who gave them equality of rights with his own lieges in the courts of law, exempted them from public burdens, such as supplying men for his army, &c., and enacted laws to protect them from the caprice and tyranny of the landed gentry. In spite of every enactment, however, they were then, and have ever since been, most cruelly trampled upon by the Polish nobles, who treat the Jews on their properties according to their sovereign good pleasure; for woe betide the caitiff who dare even whisper of calling in the laws to his defence. He must pay whatever tax his master chooses to impose upon him; but the latter is discreet enough to avoid pushing his extortions to such an extreme as would drive the Israelite to "cut and run." The law prohibits the noble from whipping or manually chastising him; but the Jew knows his master's infirmity of temper, and therefore submits to it in humble patience. If the lord pull his beard, he gives him full permission to do the same by the first countryman he may chance to encounter. It was formerly the custom in Poland for noblemen to maintain Jews as fools or jesters under their roofs; nor has the custom been entirely done away with in the present day. It is a common thing to find Jewish fools quartered in the country houses of the Polish gentry; nothing comes amiss to these poor creatures; they stand in the same relation to the household as a pet dog does among ourselves, occupy a corner in their master's apartment, and eat at the same table, but are the scape-goats on whom every member of the family may vent his spleen or jocosity, ad libitum. I heard much of such a miserable piece of mortality, who was living under a rich Pole's roof a few years ago. He had received the high-sounding name of Prince John, and whether in moments of jest or earnest, was known by no other. He was dressed after as elegant a fashion as the master of the house, and prodigally feasted by all within doors,-a favourite lap-dog could not have been more daintily crammed. It was his imperative duty to swallow whatever was given him, whether it were sugar to tickle his palate, or a dose of bitters by way | Such scenes are but too characteristic of the temper and manners prevalent among the generality of the Polish gentry. But in Galicia, the Austrian government have set a curb upon all this tyrannous bearing towards the Jewish race, and both master and man are the happier for it*.-Letter from Lemberg, by J. G. KOHL, RESIGNATION. I GRANT that we are surrounded by real dangers. I *The proportion of Jews to the Christian population of Poland is about ten in every ninety-six individuals; the actual numbers being 458,646 Jews and 3,899,863 Christians. In Warsaw, the Polish metropolis, the proportion is much greater, every fourth individual being of the Israelite persuasion; namely, 36,390 Jews, and vanquish it, let us see how true wisdom ordains us to sustain it. ✰ How many are ignorant of the value of resignation, or confound it with weakness! The courage of resignation is, perhaps, the most high and rare of all the forms of that virtue. Man received the gift directly from the Author of his being. His desires, inquietudes, misguided opinions, the fruits of an ambitious and incongruous education, have weakened its force in the soul. Who can read the anecdote of the American wilderness without thrilling emotion? An Indian, descending the Niagara river, was thrown into the rapids above the sublime cataract. The nursling of the desert rowed with an incredible vigour at first, in an intense struggle for life. Seeing his efforts useless, he dropped his oars, sung his deathsong, and floated in calmness down the abyss. His example is worthy of the imitation of a Christian. While there is hope, let us nerve all our force to avail ourselves of all the chances it suggests. When hope ceases, and peril must be braved, wisdom counsels calm resignation. In regard to unconquerable evils, the true doctrine is not vain resistance, but profound submission. It conceals the outline of what we have to suffer as with a veil. It hastens to bring us the fruit of consoling time. It opens our eyes to a clearer view of the possessions which remain to us. It precedes hope, as twilight ushers in the day. D. FIRST STEAM TRIP ON THE MISSISSIPPI, But it is not mere contemplation that is thus ex- From Mr. C. J. Latrobe's Rambler in North America we gather the following facts, and have thrown them into a shorter statement than Mr. L's. The success of steam navigation on the Hudson naturally suggested its practicability on the western rivers of the United States. Mr. Roosevelt of New 139,671 Christians.-Transactions of the Imperial Academy of St. York, pursuant to an agreement with Chancellor Petersburg. Mr. R. Livingston and Mr. Fulton, surveyed these rivers On arriving at the first of the two beds of coal which they had by this time bought from the government, they found a quantity quarried to hand by some unknown depredators, and were employed in conveying it on board, when they learned for the first time from some of the squatters about the place, that strange noises had been heard the day before and that there had been an earthquake. The next day they resumed their voyage. The air grew oppressively hot, and was misty, still, and dull. The sun shone like a glowing ball of copper, shedding a lurid twilight on the stream. As evening drew on, again and again a rushing sound and loud splash drew their attention to the shore, large portions of which were torn from the land, and fell into the river. All was so still in the intervals that you might have heard a pin drop on the deck. Little was said by the awestruck voyagers, and the crew were the more alarmed as it was about this time that the great comet of 1811 disappeared from the sky. The second day from their taking in the coal all the above portentous signs continued and increased. The pilot was in despair at finding the channels everywhere altered, and numberless trees with their roots by shocks of an earthquake communicated from the island to the bows of the boat. As the day broke, after this long and anxious night, they found they were near where the Ohio enters the Mississippi, and although the shores and channels were so changed as not to be recognised, about noon they reached New Madrid, a small town on the latter of these rivers. There they found the utmost distress and fear; part of the people had fled to the higher grounds; others prayed to be received on board, for the earth was gaping on all sides, and the houses were hourly falling around them. They found the Mississippi as they advanced, though at all times a fearful stream, unusually swollen, muddy, and full of trees; and though they neither felt nor saw signs of any more earthquakes, it was not without many days more of much peril that they at last reached Natchez, to the great astonishment of all, the escape of the boat having been thought impossible Such was the first steam voyage on the Ohio and Mississippi. CASTLES IN THE AIR, THE habit of castle-building, as it is called, in which so many persons are accustomed to employ their vacant and solitary hours, is yet far from being either an innocent or a safe exercise of the mind. Το be constantly dwelling on imaginary pictures of grandeur or felicity, feeding the vanity and inflaming the desires with visions of prosperity which circumstances forbid us to realize, has an obvious tendency to make us restless and dissatisfied in the station assigned to us by Providence, and envious of the dreams of the castle-builder are dreams of self-exalta- upwards lying where formerly he had known deep advancement, great fortunes, and so will spend an water. The trees on the banks waved and nodded without a wind. Yet the voyagers had no choice but to proceed. Towards night-fall they were at a loss for shelter. They had usually brought-to under the shore, but how to do this where the banks were everywhere seen disappearing? A large island in mid-channel, known to the pilot, and by him thought a better alternative, was sought for in vain; it, too, had been completely engulphed. At length, as the night closed in, they found an islet, and, roundingto, there they moored the boat. There they lay, keeping watch on deck, and listening during the long autumn night, to the horrible roar and gurgle of the waters, and hearing from time to time the commotion made by the masses of earth and trees, as they slid downwards and were swallowed up by the stream. The mother of the party, who had lately had a child, was frequently awakened from her restless slumber hour with imaginative pleasure; all their employment being nothing but fumes of pride, and secret indefinite desires and significations of what their heart wishes*." Let the dreams of the castle-builder, however, be not so immediately ministering to pride and vain-glory, upon what objects at best will they be employed, and in what direction will they be turned? To riches, power, luxury, worldly pleasures, sensual enjoyments, and the like. Such are the objects on which they invariably dwell, and such are the appetites and affections which they must powerfully tend to stimulate and inflame. How unsuitable then is such an employment of the thoughts to one whose profession it is and whose constant aim it ought to be to "set his affections on things above, not on things of the earth," a Holy Living. to mortify the pride of life and the love of this world, and to have his conversation in Heaven! It is to the young especially, whose ardent hopes and lively imaginations particularly expose them to the dangers of an unbridled exercise of the fancy, and to fond and glittering dreams of worldly prosperity, that the apostle addresses the emphatic warning to be soberminded*. What disposition of mind can be conceived more totally opposed to that which inspires the wild visions of the castle-builder? POPHRON. THE MOUNTAIN ASH, (Sorbus aucuparia.) THIS graceful tree, known also as the Quicken tree, and in the north of England as the Rowan tree, must not be confounded with the common Ash, (Fraxinus excelsior,) which is a very different and a far more valuable tree, and has already been described in Saturday Magazine, Vol. IX., p. 228. The mountain ash is a slow growing tree, and does not attain sufficient bulk to make its timber valuable, neither is the wood durable enough to answer those purposes for which the common ash is employed. It is properly a species of the service or sorb, and in the north, where it is permitted to grow at pleasure, it attains a much greater height than here, where it is looked upon chiefly as an ornamental tree for shrubberies and plantations. These it enlivens in spring by the elegant lightness of its foliage, and the abundance of its fragrant blossoms, and in autumn by the beauty of its red berries, which remain on the tree during the whole winter. In former days, when the superstitious belief in witchcraft prevailed, the wood of this tree was supposed to be a preservative against its effects; and even to the present hour in some remote districts of the north, the virtues of the Wiggen tree (as the mountain ash is there called,) are still highly celebrated. When the influence of some "auld witch" is *Tit. ii. 6. maliciously exerted in the dairy, and many a weary hour has been spent in the operation of churning, without producing the desired effect, the remedy is said to be found in procuring a churn-staff made of the wiggen tree, which dispels the charm, and effectually frees the dairy from the interference of the witch. If the cattle are found tied together in the stables and cowhouses, or the cows are found to have been previously milked, or any other mischief to have been carried on, the prevention of further ills is sought for by supplying the utensils about the farmyard with handles formed of the Wiggen tree. blessing of undisturbed repose is scarcely expected without the aid of this never failing antidote to witchery. A branch of the wiggen tree is often suspended at the bed's head to prevent the witches from exerting their power by filling the mind with horrible images during sleep. The doorways of buildings are decorated in the like manner when there is any suspicion of danger from the influence of these imaginary beings. The In speaking of the ornamental appearance of the mountain ash, Gilpin says:-" In the Scottish Highlands it becomes a considerable tree. There, on some rocky mountains covered with dark pines and waving birch, which cast a solemn gloom o'er the lake below, a few mountain ashes joined in a clump, and mixing with them, have a fine effect. In summer the light green tint of their foliage, and in autumn the glowing berries, which hang clustering on them, contrast beautifully with the deeper green of the pines; and if they are happily blended, and not in too large a proportion, they add some of the most picturesque furniture with which the sides of these rugged mountains are invested." This tree will thrive in almost any soil, but flourishes most in hilly situations. The beautiful scarlet berries with which it is loaded afford a welcome supply to thrushes and many other birds, whose favourite food they form. These berries are bruised in water, fermented, and made into a pleasant drink by the inhabitants of the north of Europe; and when dried and powdered, they likewise afford them bread. Each berry contains three seeds, imbedded in pulp of a bitterish taste. The flower which preceded it is white and fragrant. It stands in the twelfth class and third order of Linnæus, and contains about twenty stamens and three pistils. An infusion of the berries is commonly drunk in Wales, and forms an acid liquor somewhat resembling perry. An ardent spirit may likewise be distilled from them. Forming as it does one of the characteristics of Scottish scenery, the mountain ash or rowan is not forgotten by the poets of that land. Grahame thus contrasts the richer offerings of the south with the scanty products of his native country: What, though the clustering vine there hardly tempts LONDON: JOHN WILLIAM PARKER, WEST STRAND. PUBLISHED IN WEEKLY NUMBERS, PRICE ONE PENNY, AND IN MONTHLY PARTS, PRICE SIXPENCE. Sold by all Booksellers and Newsvenders in theKingdom. |