over the great ecclesiastical organization which had spread over Europe, and became a temporal ruler over a considerable territory. At the end of the eighth century the head of the church was not only a temporal ruler over the papal states in Italy, but he assumed the power to dispense with the observance of the canonical law, under conditions to be determined by himself, and the vast power of conferring privileges on monastic and church establishments throughout the dominions of the western monarchies. The choice of bishops was subjected to his approval and disputes on matters ecclesiastical were appealable to Rome, where full jurisdiction was asserted. The conquests of the Saracens in the east removed the rivalry of Antioch, Jerusalem and Alexandria, and the west became the seat of that faith which was born in Asia. The coronation of Charlemagne by the Pope was an assumption on the part of Leo of spiritual superiority over the ruler of the "Holy Roman Empire." Leo recognized the temporal power of Charles, and in return Charles acknowledged the spiritual rule of Leo. The weak Louis became subservient to the head of the church. Following this exaltation of the head of the church to temporal power came a period of misfortune and of moral degradation, in which the pontificate became a subject of corrupt bargaining, from which it did not recover till the election of Gregory the V, 996-999. Though in course of time despotic characters were developed, the office of Pope was always elective, and the prevailing spirit of the church was democratic.

Another product of the Christian religion was the monastic establishments, which exercised such a profound influence throughout Europe during the darkest period of its history. The life of the ascetic hermit had been recommended by Gautama as that most favorable to spiritual purification, and religious societies, similar to the monastic institutions of the Christians, were formed under his teachings and became very numerous among Buddhists. The leading resemblance of the Christian and Buddhist societies was in the close association of men, whose lives were devoted to religious exercises and aims, dwelling together in celibacy under rigorous rules of

life, to which they voluntarily submitted. The leading difference was, that the doors of the Buddhist institutions were open to pass out as well as in, and the individual was at all times loaded with the burden of his own salvation through good deeds and purification of his spirit, while with the Christians the doors were closed to those who would withdraw, and spiritual salvation was made to depend, not on deeds and individual merit, but on faith and conformity to the requirements of the church. From the most ancient times the life of the hermit has been adopted by men of a certain peculiar cast of mind, and early in the history of Christianity solitary dwellers in the desert gained great renown for sanctity, among the most noted of whom were Paul and Anthony, natives of Egypt in the third and fourth century.

The first great monastic society was founded by Pachomius on the island of Tabennae in the Nile in the first half of the fourth century. Under the rules of the order the monks were distributed into cells, each containing three inmates, known as syncelli. A large cluster of such cells was called a laura, in which was one common place for meals and assemblies. Work and food were apportioned to each according to his strength, and the dress was regulated, consisting of a linen tunic with a goat skin upper garment, which they were not permitted to take off at meals or in bed, but only when assemblied for the eucharist. They were divided into twenty-four groups, and each group into bands of tens and hundreds under decurions and centurions, all under an Abbot, who, as such institutions multiplied, was subject to the Superior. The finances were managed by a steward. Their usual food was bread and water, with occasional oil, salt; fruit and vegetables for luxuries. Meals were eaten in silence, each wearing a cowl to hide his face. They assembled twice daily for common prayer, and for communion on Saturdays and Sundays. They tilled their lands and wove mats, baskets and in course of time manufactured many other articles for sale for the common fund. Pachomius induced his sister to found a convent of nuns under similar rules. At the time of his death Pachomius had 1,400 monks in his own monastery and 7,000 under

his authority. The order spread rapidly in Africa, Asia, and then into Italy and western Europe. By the fifth century the numbers are said to have increased to more than 100,000 in Egypt alone.

In 529 Benedict drew up his celebrated code of rules, which became the law of the very numerous Benedictine monasteries which spread over western Europe. Worship, study, work, obedience, silence and humility, were the leading ideas inculcated. This code was elaborated in seventy-three chapters. It exhibits a strange mixture of excellent principles and vicious ones. Monasteries formed under this code were voluntary associations of men, who were required to dispose of all their private property, and who became equals on entering the society, except that their rules were enforced by an Abbot elected by themselves, and all important matters were decided after consultation with the whole body. In large monasteries there were deans selected for merit, and each monastery had its steward, charged with the keeping of its supplies. All labor was performed by the monks, who took turns in the kitchen. Hours of work, of study and of prayer, were regulated, as were all matters of dress and of eating. Confession of faults was enjoined, penances, fasts and scourgings were imposed for breaches of the rules of the order, with expulsion as the ultimate penalty for persistent misconduct. Guests were entertained by the Abbot in separate apartments, and the monks were not allowed to speak to them, except with special permission. A probation amounting to about a year in all was required of applicants seeking to join the order. All strife and contention were prohibited, and no monk could go out into the world without leave of his Abbot. The system required the exercise of the virtues of industry, study, self denial and the recognition of brotherly equality. These lie at the foundation of all social progress. It also exacted rigid observance of religious forms, tending to evil or good according to the spirit of the individual, and seclusion from the outside, wicked world, which contracted the field of vision and influence and dried up the natural sympathies of the monks, while protecting them from the dreaded contamina

tion of a corrupt society. It separated the sexes and defied the imperative law of reproduction. In this it prevented that highest and purest human combination, the Christian family, with its voluntary devotion to succeeding generations. Convents were also established for females with similar rules.

The rapid rise of these religious societies was contemporaneous with the decay of Roman power and the tide of Germanic invasion. The monastery with its buildings, its cultivated lands, its work shops and school, became a prominent feature of all Christendom, not only on the continent but in the British Isles as well. It was a republic of peace, industry, study and devotion, amid external surroundings of war, cruelty, indolence and ignorance. It grew in wealth and importance by reason of its corporate constitution and perpetual succession, and the celibacy of its inmates yielded no heirs demanding an inheritance. It offered a refuge to those who wished to shun the hardness of the outer world. Other codes for the government of monastic societies had been formulated before that of Benedict, notably that of Basil, which became generally followed in the east, and numerous modifications of the Benedictine rules were made in after times. Many societies in course of time became rich and licentious. Abbots like other men became fond of power, and the encroachments of monastic holdings on the realms of the rulers excited jealousy and hostility.

With the decline of the empire of Charlemagne and the civil wars and struggles over succession to local authority arose that form of social organization and land tenure known as the feudal system. With the Romans, as we have seen, land was treated as subject to ownership, bargain and sale in much the same manner as chattels, and there is no sharply drawn line in the law between landed and other property. After the Germanic tribes gained settled habitations and recognized title to. tracts adjacent to their dwellings, the title of the possessor was a full and perfect one, and this was termed allodial land. Crown lands, conferred on favorites of the sovereign by the kings in later times, were termed benefices, and were held by a tenure which implied at first, and

finally expressed, a compact on the part of the beneficiary to support his benefactor. From the practice of conferring estates by kings upon their followers in times of wars and seizures of the lands of enemies arose the feudal system, which became such a prominent feature of the dark ages. The fundamental idea of it was a close union between lord and vassal for war. The ceremonies of conferring a fief consisted of, 1. Homage. The vassal with head uncovered, belt ungirt and without sword or spurs, kneeling, placed his hands between those of his lord and promised to become his man, from thenceforth to serve him with life and limb and worldly honor, faithfully and loyally, in consideration of the lands which he held under him. Homage could be accepted only by the lord in person. 2. An oath of fealty by the vassal to his lord. 3. Investiture, which consisted in putting the tenant into possession. This was done sometimes on the land by the lord or his deputy, and sometimes by the symbolical delivery of a turf, stone or other symbol.

The first, and perhaps most important obligation assumed by the vassal, was that of military service under his lord. The amount of service which might be demanded in a year depended on the size of the fief and the usage of the time and place. Forty days was the usual term for a knights fee; during which he must attend with his own equipment and at his own expense. Shorter terms were required for smaller cstates. Old men and women must send substitutes on pain of forfeiture or amercement. The terms of the service required indicate the turbulent and disordered state of society. The wars of the lord were mostly with near neighbors, and partook more of the character of forays of bandits than of organized warfare. In some places the obligation of the vassal did not require him to go beyond the lord's territory, or more than a day's journey from it. It was not a system of public defense, but an organization for the private broils of the chief. As incident to feudal tenures the lord exacted: I. Reliefs. A sum of money required to be paid by the heir of a deceased vassal on investiture with the estate. The amount was not regulated by any fixed law and was often fixed arbi