established trading posts in the East and West Indies, Asia and America, which afforded their merchants advantages, from which they made great gains and took leading rank in the commercial world. The wars of Holland have with but rare exceptions been purely defensive. In these the people have exhibited a degree of stubborn bravery and of brilliant daring never surpassed by any people. It has been in all its history mainly a collection of towns, and the democratic spirit, engendered by close contact of many people engaged in industrial pursuits, has never been successfully crushed by any ruling power. On the other hand the aristocratic spirit has grown from generation to generation among the families possessed of great wealth, and the present constitution with its property qualification for voters shows the effects of this tendency. Commercial and industrial pursuits necessitate a degree of education not found among the peasant communities of Europe prior to the eighteenth century, and the people of Holland of the fifteenth, sixteenth and seventeenth centuries enjoyed as large a measure of education as any in Europe. The extent of the domination of the Dutch is not fully measured by their territorial possessions. They early learned the mastery gained by the investment of money and the acquisition of legal titles to property, and Dutch capital has been placed in America and elsewhere in such manner as to still further extend the power and influence of her capitalists and financiers. In perception and utilization of the advantages of combination and mutual help in peaceful enterprises no modern people and perhaps none of any age have excelled them. The educational system provides for general primary instruction but is not so thorough as that of Prussia. It is being improved. There are four universities of high rank, at Utrecht, Leyden, Groningen, and Amsterdam.

The constitution of Belgium adopted in 1831 exhibits more marks of modern influences than that of Holland. The latter has its traditions and survivals of ancient organizations, while the former is thoroughly modern.

The first title relates to the boundaries and division into provinces. The second is much like the bills of rights in the

constitutions of the American states, and contains among others the following important provisions:

Art. 6. "In the State there shall be no distinction of order. All Belgians are equal before the law; they alone are admitted to civil and military employments, with such exceptions as may be established by law for particular cases."

Art. 7. “Individual liberty is guaranteed. No one can be prosecuted, except in the cases specified by law and in the form which it prescribes. Save when taken in the act, no one shall be arrested except by virtue of an order issued by a judge. It shall be shown at the time of the arrest or not later than twenty-four hours thereafter."

Art. 8. "No one shall be deprived against his will of the judge whom the law assigns him.”

Art. 9. "No penalty shall be established or enforced except by law."

Art. 10. "The home is inviolable. No search shall be made except in cases provided for by law and in the form which it prescribes."

Art. 11. "No one shall be deprived of his property except for public use and then only in the cases and in the manner provided for by law; and a just indemnity, to be ascertained beforehand, shall be paid."

Art. 14. "The freedom of religions, their public exercise, as well as the liberty of expressing their opinions on every matter, are guaranteed; reserving the right of repressing crimes committed in the exercise of these liberties."

Art. 15. "No one shall be compelled to observe, in any manner whatsoever, the rites and ceremonies of any form of religion, nor be required to observe days of rest."

Art. 17. "Public education shall be free, every preventive measure is prohibited. The repression of crime shall be regulated by law. Public instruction given at the expense of the state shall also be regulated by law."

Art. 18. "The press is free, no censorship shall ever be established, nor can writers, editors or printers be required to give bonds. When the author is known and resides in Belgium, the editor, printer or news agent cannot be prosecuted."

Art. 19. "All Belgians have the right to assemble peaceably and without arms, conforming themselves to the laws which may regulate the exercise of this right, but without being obliged to obtain permission beforehand. This regulation does not apply to open air meetings, which are entirely under police regulation.”

Art. 20. "Belgians shall have the right to form associations; this right cannot be suppressed by any preventive measure."

Art. 22. "The secrecy of the mails shall be inviolable. The law shall determine who are the responsible agents in the violation of the secrecy of the mails."

Art. 24. "No previous authorization is necessary to begin suits against public officials for the acts of their administration, with such exceptions as may be made regarding the Ministers."

Title three distributes the governmental powers.

Art. 25. "All powers emanate from the nation. They shall be exercised in the manner established by the constitution."

Art. 26. "The legislative power shall be exercised collectively by the king, the House of Representatives and the Senate."

Art. 27. "The initiative shall belong to each one of the three branches of the legislative power. But all laws relative to the receipts or expenses of the state, or the contingent of the army must be first voted by the House of Representatives." Art. 28. "The interpretation of the laws in an authoritative manner shall belong only to the legislative power."

Art. 29. "To the king belong executive powers within the limits prescribed by the constitution."

Art. 30. "The judicial power shall be exercised by the courts and tribunals."

Sessions of the Houses are required to be public, subject to a right to resolve themselves into secret committees. Each house judges of the returns and qualifications of its members. Appointment by the government to a salaried position vacates the member's seat. A majority constitutes a quorum. An absolute majority is required to pass a law, and the vote must be taken by roll call. Members are privileged from arrest.

Art. 47. "The House of Representatives shall be composed of Deputies elected directly by those citizens paying the census prescribed by the electoral law, which shall not exceed one hundred florins of direct tax nor be below twenty florins."

The number of deputies shall not exceed one for 40,000 inhabitants and to be eligible one must be a Belgian twentyfive years old. The term of office is four years and one-half are elected every two years. Members have a monthly salary of two hundred florins, except that those who reside in the city where the session is held get no salary. The senate is composed of half the number of the House, elected for eight years, one-half every four years, but entirely renewed in case of dissolution. Senators must be Belgians forty years old and pay at least 1000 florins direct taxes, including licenses in Belgium. They receive no salary.

The constitutional powers of the king are conferred on Leopold of Saxe-Coburg and made hereditary in the male line by primogeniture. In case of failure of such heirs the king may name his successor, with the consent of the two houses. The king cannot be chief of another state without the assent of the two houses.

Art. 63. "The person of the king shall be inviolable, his ministers shall be responsible."

Art. 64. "No act of the king shall have any effect, if it be not countersigned by a Minister who, by this act alone, makes himself responsible." "The king appoints ministers, confers grades in the army, and appoints officers of the general administration and foreign affairs, and such others as are authorized by law. He has no power to suspend the laws. The king commands the army and navy, declares war, and makes treaties. Treaties of commerce or imposing obligations on the Belgians must be ratified by both houses." "No cession, no exchange, no addition of territory can take place except by law." "The houses shall be in session each year, for at least forty days," and the king may convoke them on extraordinary occasions and may dissolve them simultaneously or separately. He may remit or reduce sentences, except those against the ministers. He may confer titles of nobility.

Art. 68. "No one shall be a Minister who is not a Belgian by birth or who has not received supreme naturalization."

Art. 77. "The law shall fix the civil list for the duration of each reign."

Art. 78. "The king shall have no other powers than those which the constitution formally confers upon him and the particular laws passed in pursuance of the same constitution.

In case of vacancy of the throne the ministers exercise the kings' powers, and the two houses provide a regency during the minority or disability of the king.

Art. 87. "No member of the Royal Family shall be a minister."

Art. 88. "The Ministers shall have a deliberative voice in one or the other house only when they are members thereof. They shall have free access to each of the houses and must be heard when they demand it. The houses may require the presence of the Ministers."

Art. 89. "In no case shall the verbal order or writ of the king relieve a minister from his responsibility."

Impeachments of ministers are tried before both houses in joint session. Articles 92 to 107 inclusive relate to Judicial Power.

Art. 94. "No tribunal nor civil court shall be established except by law. No extraordinary commissions or tribunals shall be established under any name whatsoever."

One Court of Appeals for all Belgium is established with no original jurisdiction except in the trial of ministers. Court proceedings must be public, except when dangerous to public order or morals and formally decided so to be. Jury trials are required in all criminal matters. All judicial officers are named directly by the king. Judges are appointed for life with salaries fixed by law, and prohibited from accepting any other salaried appointment. The powers and procedure of all courts civil and military are subject to regulation by law. Provincial and local institutions are regulated by law on the principles of direct election, local self-government in local affairs, publicity of council meetings, budgets and accounts.

Art. 110. "No tax for the benefit of the state shall be established except by law."