were not introduced till after the days of the apostles, into the Christian church; and sacerdos, here promiscuously used with episcopus, at its first introduction, designated only the presbyter, which the occasional insertion summus, by this writer, to distinguish the bishop, still viewed as the primus presbyter, plainly

evinces.

When comparing the state of the Christian church. in the time of the ten years persecution, under Diocletian and Maximinus, he observes, that martyrdoms were then much more eagerly sought by glorious deaths, than episcopal sees are now coveted by depraved ambition; a clear evidence of the moral declension of the church in a single age after the establishment by Constantine of that episcopal government, which had been introduced by custom, founded in the expediency described by Jerom.

In the history of his own times, he mentions the fact, that Priscilianus made a layman, bishop of Abila. -"Priscilianus etiam laicum episcopum in Labinensi (abilensi apud Hieron.) oppido constituit." Nor was this objected against him by the orthodox. In the writings of Sulpicius there is mention of bishops, presbyters, arch-deacons, deacons, sub-deacons, readers, exorcists, but not a solitary instance of any such office as that of a presbyter, who was a layman.

Synesius resided on the east side of North Africa; Sulpicius in the west of Europe; the former under the government of the Greeks, the latter that of the Romans; the first was a gentleman of estate, the other a nobleman; the one a philosopher, the other an historian; and, when converted, the former a bishop, the latter a presbyter; both were acquainted with the government of the Christian church, and both have

"Multoque avidius tum martyria gloriosis mortibus quarebantur, quamnunc episcopatus pravis ambitionibus appetuntur." Ibid. p. 368. w Idem. lib. ii. S. 63, p. 422.

recorded their views; yet neither a word, nor a hint, has appeared in the works of either concerning lay presbyters, or any such officer in the Christian church.

SECTION XX.

John Cassian; his progress and writings.-Socrates, Sozomen, and Theodoret, ecclesiastical historians, whose writings describe the government of the Christian church from the council of Nice, or commencement of the reign of Constantine the Great.-The establishment of Christianity, and the power given to ecclesiastical officers for its safety, every one then approved. The introduction of the Gospel into India in the days of Constantius and Athanasius, is testified by them all, and by Ammianus, and was in the fourth century, and must have been diocesan episcopacy.

JOHN CASSIAN, after leaving a monastery at Bethlehem, and visiting others in Egypt, was ordained a deacon by Chrysostom at Constantinople. Thence he went to Rome, and finally to Marseilles, where he was made a presbyter, and resided till his death, A. D. 440. The Greek was probably his native language, but he appears in Latin. He wrote Instructions for Monks, in twelve books; Conferences with Egyptian Ecclesiastics; and of the Incarnation, in seven. These writings incidentally, but correctly, describe the government of the church, at that period, as episcopal; yet express an opinion, that the first state of the church was monastic, and all things common, and that the latitude given by the council at Jerusalem was because of Gentile infirmity. But when, even from this, the church had degenerated, some, possessing the fervor of the apostles, left the cities, and retired into private situations, who are thence called Monks, Anchorites, Eremites, and Ascetics.

a De Incarnatione, lib. vii. c. 31.

b Collatio i. c. v. p. 219.

THE PRIMITIVE GOVERNMENT, &c.

189

An abbas was the head of a monastery, and if it was remote from a city, or very large, he was usually a presbyter, that he might administer the sacraments. But sometimes vain glory suggested clerical preferment, and a desire of the office of presbyter, or deacon. Each of these was then a clerical grade; the office of presbyter was consequently undivided, and that of a deacon being also clerical, the possibility of an inferior presbyter is excluded.

Seniores, in the writings of Cassian, mean either abbates, or the monks, who are intrusted with the care of the noviciates, except when taken for the Christian fathers, never ecclesiastical officers, for he deemed it an important maxim, that a "monk should by all means shun the bishops;" which he said he could not always rehearse without confusion, for he had not been able to escape their hands.

Socrates, Sozomen, and Theodoret, wrote ecclesiastical histories of the same times, beginning in the reign of Constantine the Great, and terminating about the times of Theodosius the Younger. Their concurrent testimony evinces the continued influence of the canons of the council of Nice, established by the authority of the Roman emperor; which, with various modifications, are still the fundamental laws of the Catholic ecclesiastical government; and have been, and probably always will be, unceremoniously enforced, wherever her physical means have extended or shall be supplied. These historians are competent, but not always credible witnesses, even of the things which occurred in their own times; for great allowances must be made for the ignorance, credulity, and depravation of the people, and the arts and ambition of a

"Nonnunquam vero clericatus gradum, et desiderium presbyteri vel diaconatus innuitit." Scil. Cenodoxia, lib. xi. c. 14, p. 178.

d Lib. xii. c. 14, p. 193. Col. i. c. 22, p. 325.

e Lib. xi. c. 18, p. 181, de institutis.

clergy, who maintained their establishment by the vigilant exercise of their new authority, and the substitution of monkish legends and fraudulent devices, in the place of the simplicity of the gospel, and its saving truths.

Socrates was born at Constantinople, in the reign. of Theodosius the First. After a liberal education, he studied and professed the law, and wrote his history in seven books.

Canonical ordination, introduced, as we have seen, without either Scriptural precept or apostolical example, could neither enlarge nor limit the office of presbyter; its essence was the same, the ordainers being still presbyters. Also, the ambition of preachers rendered convenient, custom established, and civil authority confirmed, a diocesan form of government; but neither were the essentials of the church of Christ thereby destroyed, nor have presbyters gained; whether considered as bishops or priests, for lay presbyters as yet had no existence, a particle more or less of legitimate Scriptural power than had been at first given to them. As members of the social compact, they may receive and bear its authority; and as officers of civil society, they ought to be respected; but when they claim, hold, and exercise municipal offices, by a divine right, because the office of presbyter is of such nature, their pretensions are absurd, and where their discernment justifies the charge of disingenuity,

wicked.

At that period, no prudent Christian would have refused to abide by those canons of councils, which, being the supreme law of the empire, secured the people from Pagan persecution under which they had groaned so long. Also, the high respect entertained for the canon law, at the first, appears by many examples. When the church at Constantinople were told that Proclus, whom they had elected, could not

f Socrat. lib. v. c. 24.