with the lips, which must necessarily cause a motion of the air, have respect, not to God, but to the air; and that whenever a sacrifice was brought to the altar, it was offered to the altar, and not to God; than which, nothing can be imagined more absurd. All rites, therefore, may be contemplated in different points of view: considered physically, they exhibit nothing more than certain gestures of the body and operations of the hands: but it is quite another thing, to consider them as belonging to divine worship. Thus though the ceremony of laying the parts of the victim on the altar, considered as an action of the hands, had reference merely to the altar; yet, as an fact of external and a sign of internal worship, it

had respect properly to God. The same remark may be applied to the bending of the knees, and the bowing of the head or of the whole body; of which, when performed as acts of solemn worship, the immediate reference to God is too obvious to admit a single doubt.

IX. For the further illustration of the topic under Worship, present consideration, we must recall to our attention what has been already stated, that all the Jewish sacrifices were offered to God, either as the maker and sovereign of the universe, or as the giver of all good, or as possessing absolute power to punish and to pardon; so that, it is easy to perceive, those sacrifices included the most solemn acts of religion, and the proper nature and design of divine worship. This notion of sacrifices is fully conveyed both by the scriptures, in which those who should sacrifice to strange gods, are condemned to be put to death, as idolaters, and rebels against the true God;* and

* Exod. xxii. 20. xxxiv. 14, 15. Deut. xxxii. 16, 17.

the decrees of the Sanhedrim, in which, as Maimonides states,* all are pronounced guilty of strange worship, who shall bend the body, pour out a liba'tion, burn incense, or immolate an animal to any strange god.' Wherefore, as sacrifices included the proper nature and design of divine worship, they cannot be denied to have had respect to God, unless it be also denied that divine worship has respect to God; which would be denying that God is worshipped even when worship is actually rendered to him.

X. Since all worship of God, whether natural or instituted, is designed either to supplicate or to commemorate his favour, the inference is unavoidable, de john that sacrifices, which have been proved to include the proper nature and design of divine worship, must have had the same objects. And, as we have already shown, eucharistic sacrifices were offered to commemorate the favour of God: holocausts also were sometimes offered for the same purpose, though they appear to have been often employed as means of supplicating that favour. Similar objects were contemplated in all the other sacrifices. Some, which were voluntary, were offered in order to obtain prosperity; others, which were votive, to avert dangers; and others, denominated sin offerings and trespass offerings were designed to expiate sins and trespasses, that is, to obtain their forgiveness. Thus there were no sacrifices which had not respect to God, in like manner as praises, thanksgivings, and prayers. Nor ought this to be thought strange, since the affections, and desires of the mind might be implied and signified by actions as well as by words, by rites as well as by prayers; and the ceremonies connected with * In Shegagoth, c. 7.

R

6. ccompanied

sacrifices contained acknowledgments of God's supreme power over life and death, and his absolute sovereignty over the universe.

To the same purpose we may cite the words of the prophet, by whom solemn prayers are called "the "calves of the lips :"* the reason of which is, that prayers are a species of sacrifices, and sacrifices a species of prayers. Prayers are spiritual sacrifices, and sacrifices are symbolical prayers. This is evident from the language of Saul, who, because he had not offered sacrifice, represents himself as not having made supplication:† and from that of Solomon;

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The sacrifice of the wicked is an abomination unto "the Lord; but the prayer of the upright is his delight." This sentence implies, that even the sacrifices of the wicked, so far from being available with God, were on the contrary displeasing to him, but that the prayers of every good man were very prevalent with him. Now there would have been no reason for instituting this comparison, if sacrifices and prayers had not unquestionably been directed to the same object. Sacrifices, however, all other circumstances being alike, would have been thought more available than simple prayers. But whoever considers the efficacy of the one as having respect to God, ought to entertain the same opinion of the efficacy of the other.

XI. The principle we have been maintaining is the prayer for further confirmed by the prayers which used to be offered up at the time of sacrifice. Their design was, that the sacrifices which they accompanied might be acceptable to God, and might obtain from him those favours on account of which they were

*Hos. xiv. 2.

+ I Sam. xiii. 12.

↑ Prov. xv. 8.

immolated. An example of this occurs in the second book of Maccabees: "And the priests made a prayer "while the sacrifice was consuming, both the priests " and the rest, Jonathan beginning, and the rest answering thereunto, as Neemias did. And the prayer was after this manner: O Lord, Lord God, "Creator of all things, who art fearful and strong,

righteous and merciful, and the only and gracious "king, the only giver of all things, the only just, "almighty, and everlasting, thou that deliverest "Israel from all trouble, and didst choose the fa"thers and sanctify them: receive the sacrifice for

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Gather those together

deliver them that serve

among the heathen, look upon them that are despised and abhorred, and let the heathen know, "that thou art our God.

Punish them that oppress

us, and with pride do us wrong.

Plant thy people again in thy holy place, as Moses hath spoken.' To the same purpose may be cited the prayers offered by every offender over an expiatory victim, concluding with the words, 'Let this be my expiation :'—and the petitions of David, which had reference to sacrifices though not uttered at the time of their oblation; "Remember all thy (meat) offerings, and

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accept (or, turn to ashes) thy burnt sacrifice."t Now those prayers, whose object was, that the sacrifice which was presented might be acceptable to God, and might obtain from him those things on account of which it was offered, clearly show, that the proper efficacy of every sacrifice had respect to God. For in vain would prayers have been employed

tophorical so

crac.

to promote God's acceptance of that which was not designed either to commemorate, or to supplicate, or to secure his favour.

XII. Let us next advert to those things which are film areoptol designated as sacrifices in a metaphorical sense. In the first place, prayers and thanksgivings are called sacrifices;* and that for no other reason, than because they have this character in common with sacrifices strictly so called, that they properly have respect to God. The same appellation is given to donations, labours, and pains, performed and endured so as to be acceptable to God. Thus it is applied, to benefits conferred upon the needy; to a broken and contrite spirit, that is, to repentance for sins; to a body adorned with purity; to blood shed in the cause of God; and to the conversion of the heathens:† and most of these things, at the same time that they are named sacrifices, are likewise affirmed to be acceptable to God. Hence it is obvious, that they are designated as sacrifices, because they are acceptable to God and means of seeking his favour; and consequently, sacrifices properly so called must have had the same object. Otherwise the sacred writers would have been chargeable with great inaccuracy in this metaphorical use of the term. For no expression could be transferred from real sacrifices to metaphorical ones, which did not in some way belong to those which were properly so called. Wherefore, as it is evident from other considerations, that all sacrifices properly so called partook of the nature of divine worship; so, from the remarks which have now been made, it appears that this worship was

* 1 Pet. ii. 5. Heb. xiii. 15.

+ Philip. iv. 18.- Heb. xiii. 16. Psalm li. 17. Rom. xii. 1. Philip. ii. 17. Rom. xv. 16.