of the forest, from place to place, as they are impelled by necessity or inclination.

925. The BARBAROUS STATE is that in which nations subsist by agriculture, or the pasturage of cattle and sheep, with some knowledge of the use of metals, and the mechanic arts.

They have some regular forms of government and religion, but no written language or books.

926. There are two classes of barbarous nations. The greater part of Siberia, Tartary, Arabia, and the deserts of Africa, is occupied by wandering tribes, who live in tents; subsisting chiefly on the milk and flesh of their camels, horses, cattle, or sheep, and moving from place to place to obtain pasturage.

The barbarous nations in the fertile regions of Africa, and the islands of Asia and Polynesia, find an abundant supply of food in the spontaneous productions of the earth, with very little labour. They have therefore no inducement to a wandering life, and are usually settled in villages.

927. The HALF-CIVILIZED state is like that of the Chinese, who understand agriculture and many of the arts very well, and have, some books and learning, with established laws and religion. Still they treat their women as slaves, usually keeping them in confinement; and have many other customs like those of barbarous nations. They have little foreign commerce, and make few or no improvements in arts and learning. China, Japan, Southern Asia, Persia, Turkey, and Northern Africa, are the principal countries in this state of society.

928. The CIVILIZED STATE is that in which the sciences [167] and arts are well understood; especially the art of printing; and females are treated as companions. Some nations of this class have advanced no farther, and are considered merely as civilized. They retain many barbarous customs; and the great body of the people remain in gross ignorance; as in Poland, Portugal, and a large part of Russia.

The colonies which are formed by enlightened nations in uncivilized countries, are usually for a long time in this state of society, as in South America. From the peculiar difficulties and dangers of new settlements, and the want of means of improvement, they advance slowly in knowledge and refinement.

929. There are others which may be termed enlightened nations, in which knowledge is more general, and the sciences and arts are found in the greatest perfection; as in most of the nations of Europe. All the branches of art and manufacture are carried on in a more skilful, productive, and useful manner, with the aid of machinery, and minute division of labour. Commerce is extended

to every quarter of the globe. The political institutions are also such as to give greater liberty and more safety than in other countries; as in the middle and north of Europe, and the United States.

The degree of civilization of each country is shown on the Chart of the World, by several shades, which are there explained, and the student should make himself familiar with the general state of the world, by examining the condensed view of it there exhibited.

GOVERNMENT.

930. A state is a body of people, connected under the same government, and yielding obedience to the same laws. It is called a duchy, principality, kingdom, empire, or republic, according to its form of government.

931. In every government there are three distinct powers to be exercised.

1. The power of making laws, or the legislative, which sometimes belongs to one man, and sometimes to a number of men called a legislature. 2. That of administering justice, or the judicial power, usually in the hands of judges. 3. The power of executing the laws, or the executive, which generally belongs to the chief, king, president, duke, or other supreme head of the government.

932. The ruler of a country is usually assisted in his duties by a number of persons chosen by himself, called ministers, counsellors, or sometimes, as in the United States, secretaries. As he also consults with them on affairs of importance, they are called his cabinet, or council, and in Turkey the divan. The prime minister in Turkey and Persia is called the vizier.

933. The three principal forms of government are monarchy, aristocracy, and democracy.

A democracy is a government in which the people assemble to make laws. A pure democracy is rarely found, except in towns, [168] or very small states. A republic is a democratic government, administered by rulers chosen by the body of the people; as in the free states of North America.

934. A confederation, or federal republic, is a union of several independent states, for mutual aid and defence, under the direction of a general assembly; as in Germany, Switzerland, and the United States of North America.

935. An aristocracy is a government in the hands of a few persons, usually called nobles. Aristocracies are sometimes called

republics; as was that of Venice.

936. A monarchy is that form of government in which the su preme power is in the hands of one man (styled a monarch) during

life. In almost all the monarchies now existing, the throne is hereditary, that is, it descends to a member of the same family.

937. In an absolute monarchy, the monarch makes laws at his own pleasure, without any control from others; as in Russia. If he governs without established laws, and merely according to his own will, the government is usually called a despotism; as in Persia.

938. When the power of the monarch is limited by a constitution, or an assembly of the people, the government is called a limited monarchy; as in Great Britain.

939. The first kind of government in the world was the patriarchal, in which every father or patriarch governed his own family and servants, as a monarch. The inhabitants of Lapland, Greenland, New-Holland, and a few other portions of the world, which are either islands or very small countries, appear to have no other government than that which arises from the natural authority of parents in their families.

940. By the increase of families, and alliances formed for mutual defence, some patriarchs became governors of many kindred families, or a tribe, and were called chiefs. The government of Savage and Barbarous nations is usually that of patriarchs or chiefs.

The names given to chiefs vary in different nations. Among the North American Indians they are called sachems; in South America caziques; and in Asia usually khans. In Europe the dukes of independent states have similar powers, probably obtained in a similar way. The title, however, belongs to many noblemen who have none of the original powers of a duke.

941. When a particular chief became very powerful, he often conquered many others, and became monarch of a large country. He was then called a king or emperor; or in Asia a sultan, rajah, or shah. All these are really monarchs, differing in the extent of their government rather than in the nature of their power.

942. The power of the chiefs, in Savage or Barbarous tribes, is chiefly that of influence. The oldest and wisest govern in the council; and the bravest lead in war. This is generally the state of the Indians in North America.

In temperate and cold countries, it is more common for the tribes to be governed by councils of the old men and warriors, and no important measure can be decided without their consent. [169] Their governments seem to be democracies, in which the younger voluntarily submit to the decision of the older. This is the case with some of the smaller nations on the western coast of Africa.

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Their public business and trials are all conducted in a meeting, called a palaver, which is attended by the whole village or tribe.

943. In the warmer regions of America and Africa, the chiefs of Savage tribes are either elected for life, or inherit the dignity, and are absolute in their power. Mexico and Peru were formerly absolute monarchies, in which the highest veneration was paid to the king.

944. The Savage and Barbarous tribes of Siberia and Tartary have a great variety of governments. Some of them are democratic, and others aristocratic; some absolute, and others limited monarchies. But the governments of Savage and Barbarous nations are not usually well defined, or fully understood by travellers.

945. Arabia is governed by a number of independent chiefs, called imams, emirs, or sheiks, whose authority is in some tribes absolute, in others limited. The state of Beloochistan is nearly similar; but the Khan of Kelat is here acknowledged as superior to the chiefs of other tribes. Cabul is an absolute monarchy.

946. In the absolute monarchies of Asia and Africa, the king is a despot, with the power of life and death. There is no assembly of the people, or privileged order of hereditary nobles to control his power, nor any law to limit its exercise. Such is the state of Abyssinia, Sennaar, Morocco, Fezzan, and most of the kingdoms of Africa.

Dahomey is the most despotic government known. The king is regarded as a superior being; his subjects consider themselves as his slaves, and submit to the most barbarous and oppressive treatment.

947. In Persia and Turkey the only check upon the power of the sultan is the Koran. This is interpreted by the Ulema, or doctors of the law, officers who are appointed by the sultan; and their opinion is of course usually accommodated to his wishes. These monarchs are revered as the successors of Mahomet, and have on this account peculiar power. The Turkish sultan may kill several persons in a day without giving any reason, and indeed is restrained from no crime. In both these countries, however,. there are many wandering tribes, governed by independent chiefs, who are only tributary to the sultan, and must be courted by him in order to preserve their friendship.

948. The Bashaw of Tripoli, the Dey of Algiers, and the Beys of Tunis and Egypt, are really absolute chiefs or monarchs, under different names. The Dey of Algiers is elected by the soldiers, who are usually Turkish slaves; and is dethroned at their pleasure. These chiefs are nominally subject to the Emperor of Tur

key, and send an annual tribute, often very small. They are independent in their own territories. In all these absolute governments, the monarch is liable to be dethroned by insurrection; and oppressive monarchs are often cut off in this way.

949. The Emperor of China is considered as the father of his [170] people, and bound to consult their good. His power is absolute; but there are established laws and customs, which it would be dangerous to violate. The government is administered by nine orders of inferior officers, called by Europeans mandarins. The only qualification for office is learning; and regular examinations are holden for those who wish to obtain it. Each mandarin governs all below him with the same absolute power as that exercised by the

emperor.

In

950. In Siam, Burmah, and the independent kingdoms of Hindoostan, there are books of laws to regulate the administration of justice; but the whole power is in the hands of the king. these, as in all the Barbarous and Half-civilized countries of the world, the absolute monarchies are really despotisms, notwith standing any seeming limitations of the power of the monarch.

951. Russia was until lately an absolute monarchy, uncontrolled even by a constitution. The emperor Alexander declared it a constitutional monarchy. He appointed a senate, with the power of remonstrating against any unconstitutional ukase, (or edict,) whose proceedings are published every month. But the great body of the people are still vassals or slaves, and the power is entirely in the hands of the emperor and nobles.

952. Prussia and Denmark were formerly limited, but are now absolute monarchies, without any check on the power of the king, except established customs.

In the kingdoms of Naples and Sardinia, the Roman States, the Duchy of Tuscany, and most of the duchies of Italy and Germany, the government is also absolute.

The duchies of Hesse-Cassel, Nassau, Saxe-Gotha, and SaxeHildburghausen, have representative governments; and this government is also to be established in the duchy of Oldenburgh.

953. Spain and Naples were revolutionized, and the royal au thority was limited by a cortes for a short period; but the kings have now regained their absolute power. Portugal has been made a constitutional monarchy, by a decree of the emperor of Brazil.

954. In the limited monarchies of Europe, the executive power, and the appointment of judges, usually belong to the king. The legislative power is shared between the king and an assembly of the people, and the consent of both is necessary to the passage of a law. The assembly is called a parliament in England and