Cotton is the chief article of culture in this region, and yields great profit to the planter. It is raised throughout Virginia for home consumption, and has been found to flourish still farther north. Rice and maize are the principal grains of the cotton region. Maize is the principal food of the slaves in these states, and in Virginia. Rice is exported in considerable quantities. Wheat and rye are little cultivated, except in the hilly country. Barley, oats, hemp, and tobacco flourish here. Indigo has been cultivated to a great extent, especially in Georgia and South Caro lina; but the profits arising from the crops of cotton, now lead to the neglect of all others. The potatoe cannot be cultivated to advantage in this region; and the sweet potatoe, a plant of [223] a different species, is generally substituted.

Peaches are abundant and fine. The fig and pomegranate are also raised, and the orange and lemon grow imperfectly in South Carolina. Apples, pears, and other fruits of the Temperate Regions degenerate.

The cotton is of two kinds. The black-seed, or sea-island is by far the most valuable; but it can be raised only in a few districts, and chiefly on the low islands which line the coast of the Southern States. The green-seed, or upland cotton, requires so much labour to separate it from the seed, that it was not worth raising until the invention of the cotton gin, by Eli Whitney, Esq. of New-Haven, Conn. Before this time it was an article of small importance; but now it forms half of the exports of the United States; exceeding in value all the other products of the field and the forest.

1206. The tropical region embraces Louisiana, Florida, and the southern parts of Georgia, Alabama, and Mississippi. Sugar is here an important article of culture, and an object of increas ing attention. Coffee may probably be raised; but experiments have not yet been made to any extent.

Maize produces luxuriant crops, almost without cultivation. But the inhabitants of the whole region lying on the Mississippi and Gulf of Mexico, south of Kentucky, depend chiefly on the states on the Ohio River for supplies of grain, and are occupied more profitably in the culture of cotton or sugar. Great numbers of cattle and swine are raised and fattened in the woods with very little care. The orange, lemon, and fig, are found in this region in perfection; and it is not improbable, that this tract of country may supply the northern states with sugar and coffee, and most of the important productions of the tropical regions.

MEXICO AND SOUTH AMERICA.

1207. In the Spanish and Portuguese colonies of North and South America, several causes have combined to prevent improvements in agriculture. The natural indolence of the Portuguese

and Spaniards has been increased, by the enervating influence of a warm climate, and the discouragements arising from an oppressive government. The passion for mining has produced a general distaste for the more slow, but certain profits of agriculture; and it is peculiarly neglected in the mining regions on this account. In addition to this, the exportation of their productions has been prohibited, and even the cultivation of the olive, and some other articles, has been forbidden, in order to compel the importation of them from Spain.

1208. In Mexico, the articles of cultivation depend entirely on the temperature, as determined by the elevation of the land. At various heights, all the productions of the Torrid and Temperate Zones may be raised. In the lower districts bordering on the sea, the plantain or banana, the, manioc, and the cassava root, are cultivated. The more elevated regions produce excellent wheat. Maize flourishes both in the hot and temperate regions, [224] and is the principal article of subsistence. The soil is productive, and the chief difficulty arises from the dryness of the climate. This often destroys the crops, and produces a distressing famine.

1209. Those parts of South America which lie between the trapics, have that rich luxuriance of vegetation, which is common to fertile soils in the Torrid Zone. Very little labour is required to produce all the necessaries, and most of the luxuries of life. Rice, plantain, and banana, are the chief articles of subsistence. Coffee, sugar, cacao, (or the chocolate-nut,) and indigo, are important articles of culture. The most delicious fruits are abundant. But with all these advantages, the inhabitants want many comforts enjoyed by the inhabitants of more sterile countries and severe climates. All the labour is performed by Indian and Negro slaves. In consequence of this, all their farming operations are marked by the imperfection arising from ignorance and indolence. No care is taken to preserve the fertility of their lands. No enclosures are made, and every thing is suffered to decay until it is useless. After the crops are gathered, the most valuable productions of the earth are often destroyed, for want of careful preservation. These remarks are especially applicable to Brazil. Dairies are scarcely attended to, and cattle are miserably managed.

1210. The pampas or plains of Brazil and Buenos Ayres feed vast herds of horses and cattle, which require the attendance of only a few herdsmen. They furnish an inexhaustible store of provisions, and also large quantities of hides and tallow for exportation.

The more elevated regions of South America, and those lying in the Temperate Zone, including the mountainous region of Peru, Chili, and the greater part of La Plata, produce wheat, orchard-fruits, and other productions of temperate climates, and the state of cultivation is somewhat better. The mining districts procure their supplies of grain from the surrounding country; and Peru is entirely dependent on Chili for bread-stuffs.

(II.) ROADS.

1211. The state of public roads is important to commerce and the improve ments of society; and generally corresponds to the state of agriculture.

Among Savage and Barbarous nations, no roads exist but the beaten paths, which are formed by the frequent passing of travellers in the same direction. These nations are guided in their wanderings by the stars, or the skilful observations they make on the objects in view; or sometimes by the marks left in former journeys. Their roving habits render it easy for them to discover and to pursue the most intricate and difficult routes; and their jealousy leads them rather to destroy all traces which may serve as guides of others, than to attempt to render communication easy.

1212. In nations which are advancing to civilization, the introduction of commerce leads to the establishment of roads, and the ease of communication thus produced, renders them alternately the cause and the consequence of improving the state of society.

The same causes which have operated to depress the agriculture of the [225] Half-Civilized nations of Asia, have led to the neglect of roads. They travel only on camels or horses, in Arabia, Turkey, Persia, and Northern Africa; and in India, on elephants, and in palanquins, or couches carried by men. The roads are usually narrow paths, often very difficult to travel. The energy of the government and industry of the people in China and Japan, has led to the construction of numerous roads. Some of those in China, are remarkable for their bridges and excavations.

Turkey in Europe is almost as backward in roads as Western Asia. Spain and Portugal are very deficient in this respect; and there are comparatively few routes in Spain, which it is safe and convenient to travel in carriages.

1213. The character of roads depends much on the geological structure of a country. The rugged and rocky surface of primitive regions presents considerable difficulties in the construction of roads; but if well made, they are more permanent, than those of other formations. Transition and secondary regions present fewer difficulties. A soil of loam or gravel furnishes good roads at very little expense. In sandy regions, it is difficult to render them otherwise than heavy. In rich alluvions, they are almost necessarily bad, especially during the wet season, as the soil offers no resistance to the impression of wheels. The roads of dry tracts are of course better and more permanent, than those of moist regions.

1214. In the Cold and Frozen Regions of North America, Europe, and Asia, the snows form permanent and excellent paths for sledges during the winter; and this season is usually chosen for travelling and transportation. Hence there is less necessity for the construction of artificial roads in these regions; and where they are made, they are protected from injury in the winter, and it is easy to keep them in repair. The roads of Sweden are excellent. Those of Russia are not so good. The rugged character and severe climate of Norway scarcely admits the construction of roads; and the passage of the mountains is attended with great difficulty and danger.

1215. In the Temperate Regions, the frequent thaws and prevalent moisture of winter and spring, usually render the roads very bad during these seasons; and difficult to be repaired in summer. These difficulties, are in some instances

counteracted by the dryness of the climate, as in some parts of France, or by the progressive effects of labour, in a country long since cívilized, as in Germany. Italy, and the middle countries of Europe, are traversed by numerous roads, generally very good, and many of great antiquity. The bridges are usually constructed of stone; many of the roads are paved; and there is an aspect of permanency which is not found in those of a new country, like the United States. The most important roads of Italy are founded on the ancient Roman Ways, which were so well constructed, that after the lapse of fifteen centuries, some parts are still entire. The principal was the Via Appia, leading from Rome to Naples, upon which the modern road between these cities is constructed.

1216. The passes of mountains present the most serious difficulty in the construction of roads; and we cannot expect to find them good, except in countries which are populous, and have long been inhabited by civilized nations.

There are more than fifty roads over the Pyrenees, including those for pedes[226] trians; but seven only are passable for carriages. The ascent on the side of France is easy; on the side of Spain, it is more steep and difficult.

A number of fine roads have been constructed across the Alps. Mount St. Gothard is passed by a road for horsemen, at the height of 6,700 feet. The Maritime Alps of the Sardinian States, are crossed by a fine carriage road, ascending 8,000 feet, and leading the traveller above the clouds. But the passages of Mt. Simplon and Mt. Cenis, constructed by the late Emperor Napoleon, are the best and most celebrated roads over these mountains.

The Mount Simplon was formerly impassable by carriages; but in 1801, a road for carriages and artillery was commenced, and was completed by the labours of 3,000 men, in 1805. Fifty bridges were necessary to cross the tremendous chasms; the road was often cut in a bed of rocks, and six vaulted passages or galleries, of considerable length, were dug through portions of the rock, which could not be otherwise passed. Parapets and walls, some of them 200 feet high, were erected to secure the road from the effects of torrents and avalanches. At convenient distances, houses of refuge were built, to protect travellers from storms, and occupied by cantonniers, whose duty it was to accommodate them, and to keep the roads in order. The whole distance is 36 miles, and the highest point is 6,000 feet above the level of the sea; but so well is the road constructed, that it may be easily passed in a carriage in eleven hours.

A similar route was formed over Mount Cenis, in 1811. The elevation is nearly equal to that of the Simplon. It has an equal number of galleries; one of which is cut through a mass of granite, 2000 feet in length.

1217. Great Britain is traversed by numerous roads in every direction. In the mountainous districts of Scotland and Wales, they are often very bad; but those of the level districts are generally constructed in the best manner, and furnish a rapid and easy communication with every part of the kingdom. The bridges are well built, usually of stone; and a number have been constructed of iron, which unite great strength with extraordinary beauty and lightness.

The roads of Ireland are generally excellent; and were superior to those of England, fifty years since.

1218. The public works of European nations, are the result of labours which have been going on for 15 or 20 centuries. Those of colonies and newly settled countries must of course be less advanced; and are often entirely neglected, on account of the difficulty of subduing the soil, and procuring the means of personal support and comfort.

The valuable commerce of South America, has led to the construction of roads from the seaports to the mining and other important districts; but they are generally very poor, and can be travelled only by mules.

Several have been made across the Andes; but from the tremendous difficul ties of the route, and the want of skill and perseverance in the architects, the passage is usually difficult and dangerous. They are often constructed on the side of a mountain, where a single misstep would precipitate the traveller to an immense depth. The numerous chasms and torrents are crossed by means of bridges formed of ropes. These frail structures wave and vibrate with the wind, and the motion of the traveller, so that only those who are experienced can pass them with safety. In other cases a cable is stretched from side to side, and the

travellers and mules are suspended to it, and drawn over by ropes. The torrents produced by storms, or a sudden melting of the suows, often destroy those [227] who have escaped other dangers.

The pass of Quindiu, between Popayan and Bogota, is the most difficult. The highest point is 11,000 feet above the sea, or 8,000 above the foot of the mountain. No hut is to be seen for ten or twelve days on this route. In many places, the path winds through chasms, so narrow that mules cannot pass each other; some of which exceed half a mile in length. In some parts they are covered with the carcasses and bones of animals which have perished from fatigue or accident.

1219. There are only eight or nine roads between Chili and La Plata, the best of which is impassable for carriages, and is so narrow that the traveller is often obliged to proceed on foot. Not a year passes, but some of the mules are dashed to pieces in its tremendous chasms.

The road from Lima to Potosi and Buenos Ayres is encompassed with similar dangers, although it forms the channel of an important commerce. The traveller

in this, as in other passages over the Andes, is exposed to the utmost extremes of heat and cold, and undergoes dangers and privations of every kind. The path is often so steep and narrow, that it is indented with deep holes, in which the mules may place their legs to secure them from slipping Where these are wanting, the mules sometimes bring their feet together at the top of the descent, and slide down with inconceivable rapidity to the bottom, as the only means of security.

The whole distance over the Andes, from Lima to the plains of La Plata, is 1600 miles. From the foot of the mountains to Buenos Ayres, which is nearly the same distance, the road is level, and is travelled in covered wagons, drawn by oxen or horses.

1220. The table-land of Mexico is crossed by a number of roads, from ocean to ocean; but the ascent is so difficult, and the arts so little advanced, that they are generally very bad, and passable only for mules. The summit of the table-land Is so level, that a carriage road has been constructed with very little labour, for a distance of 500 leagues, from Mexico to Santa Fe.

1221. The United States exhibit in a striking manner, the effects of free institutions and enterprise. Probably no nation has ever executed so many improvements in roads, bridges, and canals, over such an extent of country in the same time.

Two centuries ago, the whole tract was a wilderness, covered with forests, and traversed only by the foot-paths of the Indians. Now, there are roads constructed in every direction, to connect the villages, towns, and cities, which have sprung up in rapid succession. In 1790, the extent of post-roads was only 1875 miles; in 1818, it was 51,600. The number of Post-Offices exceeds 4,000; and the mail is transported 20,000 miles daily. To describe all our roads, would require an enumeration of all the important settlements in the country. The principal are laid down on the map. A large number are public roads, constructed and repaired by the towns through which they pass; but the great roads are usually turnpikes, constructed by the state or incorporated bodies, and supported by tolls. Only their general character, and the most important routes, can be described.

1222. The northern, primitive district of the United States, including NewEngland and the northern part of New-York, falls within the Cold Region; and generally has permanent snows during the winter, as far south as latitude 420, which render travelling easy, and protect the roads from injury. New-England, and the greater part of the Middle States, are intersected in every direc- [228] tion by roads, which are usually well constructed, and in good repair.

New-York and Pennsylvania have little advantage from the snow; and the rich, clayey soil, which is prevalent, renders the roads very bad during the winter. The same is true to a greater extent in Maryland. In Pennsylvania, about eight millions of dollars are invested in roads and bridges.

1223. In the sandy, alluvial country of the Atlantic coast, from New-York to Florida, the roads are heavy, and not easily improved; but they rarely present the difficulties and dangers found in the roads of a rich country, after a wet season. The scattered state of population has prevented much attention to roads, in the states south of Maryland; and frequent impediments are presented by the want of bridges and causeways, over the streams and marshes.