Linotte, f., linnet. Merle, m., blackbird. Oie, f., goose. Oiseau de proie, m., bird of prey. Paon, m., peacock. Passereau, m., sparrow. Perdrix, f., partridge. Perroquet, m, parrot. Pie, f., magpie. 14. QUADRUPEDES. Agneau, m., lamb. Chamois, m., chamois, wild goat. Chèvre, f., goat. Chevreuil, m., roebuck. Ecureuil, m., squirrel. Furet, m., ferret. Hérisson, m., hedgehog. Lapin, m., rabbit. Pigeon, m., pigeon. QUADRU peds. Loup, m., wolf. Mule, f., mule. Ours, m., bear. Poulain, m., colt. Pourceau, m., hog, swine. Renard, m., fox. Singe, m., monkey. 15. POISSONS.-FISHES. Merlan, m., whiting. Perche, f., perch. Truite, f., trout. 3. Et quart, et demi [§ 84 pressions a quarter, half-past, after, etc. Il est neuf heures et quart, Il est midi et demi, Il est un heure et demie, It is a quarter after nine. It is half after twelve. It is half after one. 4. Moins un quart, moins vingt minutes, answer to the English expressions a quarter before, twenty minutes before, etc. Il est dix heures moins un quart, It wants a quarter of ten. Il est neuf heures moins dix minutes, It is ten minutes before nine. 5. The word demi, preceding the word heure, does not vary. Placed after it, it is variable [§ 84 (2)]. J'ai plus de vingt ans. I am more than twenty. 1. Votre beau-frère est-il plus âgé que le mien ? 2. Le vôtre est plus jeune que le mien. 3. Quel âge a votre belle-mère ? 4. Elle a près de cinquante ans. 5. Quelle heure est-il maintenant? 6. Il est six heures passées. 7. Etes-vous certain de cela? 8. Oui, Monsieur, j'en suis certain. 9. Est-il plus de deux heures à votre montre ? 10. Il n'est que midi à ma montre? 11. Avez-vous plus de cinq ans, mon enfant ? 12. Je n'ai pas encore quatre ans. 13. Avez-vous plus de six mètres d'indienne? 14. J'en ai moins de trois mètres. 15. Combien d'aunes de ruban votre beau-père a-t-il ? 16. Il n'a guère de ruban, il n'en a qu'une demi-aune. 17. Est-il midi moins un quart? 18. Il est plus tard, Monsieur; il est midi et quart. 19. Quel jour du mois avons-nous ? 20. Nous avons le six Octobre. 21. N'estce pas le huit Février? 22. Non, Madame, c'est le huit Mars. 23. Combien de jardins a votre cousin-germain ? 24. Il n'en a qu'un, mais il est très-beau. 25. Il en a plus de dix. EXERCISE 34. 1. How old is your brother-in-law ? 2. He is fifty years old. 3. Is your sister-in-law older than mine? 4. No, Sir, my sisterin-law is younger than yours. 5. Is your son twenty-five years old? 6. No, Madam, he is only sixteen. 7. What day of the month is it (have we) to-day? 8. It is (we have) the eleventh. 9. Have you the twentieth volume of Chateaubriand's works? 10. No, Madam, we have the eleventh. 11. What o'clock is it, Sir? 12. It is only twelve o'clock. 13. Is it not later? 14. It wants a quarter of one. 15. It is a quarter after five. 16. How many yards of this holland (toile de Hollande, f.) have you? 17. I have ten ells and a half. 18. I have six metres of it, and sixteen yards of Italian silk. 19. Is your mother-in-law younger than your father-in-law. 20. She is younger than he. 21. Are you twenty years old? 22. No, Sir, I am only nineteen and a half. 23. Are you sure (sûr) that it is ten o'clock? 24. Yes, Madam, I am sure of it. 25. Is it twenty minutes of ten? 26. No, Sir, it is a quarter before twelve (midi). 27. How many houses have you? 28. I have only one, but my sister-inlaw has two. 29. Have you mine (f.) or yours? 30. I have neither yours nor mine, I have your son-in-law's. 31. Has your mother-in-law five yards of that printed calico? 32. She has only two yards of it. 33. What o'clock is it by (a) your watch? 34. It is half-past four by my watch. 35. It is more than seven o'clock by mine (à la mienne). The French mètre is exactly 39-971 inches English measure; it is 7. Plus de, moins de, are used for more than, less than, before therefore longer than the English yard by about 3 inches, or more a number: inches. accurately 3 LESSONS IN PENMANSHIP.-X. WITH the three copy-slips on this page the learner will finish the series of copies that is based on letters or combinations of letters formed of the bottom-turn, top-turn, top-and-bottomturn, and straight stroke. In our next lesson we shall give the self-teacher a new letter, which is in itself an elementary form that enters into the composition of the majority of the letters that he has yet to learn to write. If any of those who are endeavouring to acquire a knowledge of the art of Penmanship from our lessons will now take the trouble to glance over the thirty-four copy-slips that we have placed before them, they will see by how gentle and easy a gradation we have led them on from the first simple stroke, known as the bottom-turn, to words involving combinations of all the four elementary strokes that have hitherto been brought | him hitt 66 by drawing or dragging," or the word hull, which means the frame or body of a ship," the huge black mass that floats upon the waters that sustain it, and from which rise the tapering masts and network of cordage that give grace and beauty to a vessel's form. It is unnecessary to mention more cases in which confusion would arise from a want of proper attention to the relative proportion of the strokes of which letters are formed. The reader can find out many for himself by altering the height or length of strokes above or below the lines that contain the body of the letters in any copy-slip that is either a combination of letters, or a word that conveys a distinct and special meaning of its own. A clear and legible handwriting is what every man should strive to attain, whatever may be his rank or station in life. Many suppose that it is vulgar and commonplace to write a legible hand-that it shows good breeding to write such a scrawl that it is impossible for any one but an expert to decipher COPY-SLIP NO. 32.-THE WORD him. COPY-SLIP NO. 33. THE WORD hilt. full COPY-SLIP NO. 34.-THE WORD pull. before their notice. The words in Copy-slips Nos. 33 and 34 will bear efficient witness to the truth and propriety of the statement we made in our last lesson, that unless due attention be paid to the relative proportion of the strokes of letters that extend above or below the lines that contain the body of any letter, the appearance of any handwriting will be far from pleasing, as it will be wanting in that harmony that is so absolutely necessary to satisfy the eye. Suppose, for instance, that in Copy-slip No. 33 the letter 1 in the word hilt had been carried no higher than the t, how unsatisfactory would have been its aspect: or, again, if the letter t in the same word had been carried as high as the 1, what trouble would the reader have to determine whether the writer meant what he had written to be the word that means the "handle of a sword," or that by which "rising ground" is denoted. Then, also, in Copy-slip No. 34, if the straight stroke of the p in pull were not carried down to its proper extent, but allowed to terminate a little below the lower of the lines that contain the letter u, what doubt would arise in a reader's mind as to whether the writer meant to write the word which means "to draw," or "to move it. How the notion has arisen it is difficult to say; but, to hazard a guess, it is fair to suppose that it originated in an idea that to be engaged in trade and commerce was low, and that as people in business generally wrote legibly and plainly, it was the stamp of a commercial huxtering spirit to go and do likewise. Happily, in our times legible handwriting is not thought unworthy of a man of education and good social position, while, indeed, it is one of the principal qualifications that is insisted on in those who aspire to the Civil Service and employment in Government offices. To write a good hand is one of the first steps towards the attainment of that liberal education which stamps a man as a gentleman without any of the adventitious claims that arise out of a man's descent and social standing, and it is now as absurd for any man to sneer at another because he can write legibly as it was for Jack Cade to dub the clerk of Chatham a villain because he was taken "setting of boy's copies," and to hang him as a traitor, with his pen and ink-horn about his neck, because he could write his own name, and had not a mark to himself, like, in Cade's es imation, "an honest, plain-dealing man." LESSONS IN GERMAN.-IX. SECTION XVII.-PERSONAL PRONOUNS; VERBS OF THE NEW CONJUGATION, ETC. IN English the relation of property or possession is denoted by means of personal pronouns in the possessive case, while in German the same relation is shown by means of a distinct class of words (Sect. X.), called possessive pronouns; and these are used not merely in the corresponding case (i.e., the genitive), but in all the cases. The German personal pronoun, therefore, is rarely used in the genitive like our personal pronoun in the possessive. DECLENSION OF THE PERSONAL PRONOUNS. Masculine. N. Ich, I; G. Meiner, of me; Singular. Feminine. Du, thou; Deiner, of thee; Neuter. Sie, you. Ihrer, of you. The second person being made by the addition of the letter n. singular is formed by adding to the root the letters test; the plural of the same person taking tet. The root is found by removing the letters en from the form of the present infinitive: thus, from loben (to praise), take en, and you get lob, which is the root. The Present Participle is made by adding to the root the syllable end; as, lob-end, praising. The Perfect Participle is produced by prefixing to the root the augment ge (§ 69. 2, 4), and suffixing the letter t (sometimes et): thus, ge-lob-t, praised. The Perfect tense is formed by combining the perfect participle with the present indicative of the auxiliary haben or sein, to HAVE or to BE: as, ich habe gelobt, I have praised. The Pluperfect is formed by combining the perfect participle with the imperfect of haben or sein: as, ich hatte gelebt, I had praised. The First Future is formed by adding to the present of the D. Mir, to, or for me; Dir, to, or for thee; Ihnen, to, or for you. infinitive, the present indicative of the auxiliary werden, to A. Mich, me; Dich, thee; Sie, you. Sie, you (§ 57. 6). Ihrer, of you. Ihnen, to, or for you. Sie, you. cs, it. feiner, of it. ihm, to, or for it. cs, it. Singular. Ich lobe, I praise. fic, they ; ihrer, of them; ihnen, to, for them; 1. The personal pronouns (in the 1st and 2nd persons) are often used reflexively; and are to be rendered by our compounds, myself, thyself, ourselves, yourselves, as :-Ich lobe mich, I praise myself. Du lobst Dich, thou praisest thyself. Wir loben uns; we praise ourselves. Ihr lobt Euch, etc. 2. The reflexive form of the personal pronouns in the third person singular and plural is fic (Latin, se), and answers to our objective himself, herself, itself, themselves; its gender and number being determined by the subject of the verb, as :— Er erlaubt sich, he allows (to) himself. Sie erlaubt sich, she allows (to) herself. Der Knabe lobt sich, the boy praises himself. Sie alle loben sich, they all praise themselves, etc. (See § 60. 4.) 3. A personal pronoun of one gender is frequently translated by one of another, as :-Der Tisch ist gut, aber er ist nicht groß, the table is good, but it is not large. Das Märchen ist schön, aber es ist nicht fleißig, the girl is beautiful, but she is not industrious. Diese Feder schreibt nicht gut, sie ist zu weich, this pen does not write well, it is too soft (limber). OBS.-This respects merely the translation. If, for instance, we were to translate the last German sentence according to the German idiom, the English for it would be, "This pen does not write well, she is too soft." Now such a rendering would be contrary to the English idiom, and therefore on translating German into English, we try to come as near the English idiom as possible; although it ought to be remembered that the difference of gender, as referring to the same noun, does never take place in German. PRESENT TENSE. Participles. PRES. Lobent, praising. PERF. Gelebt, praised. Plural. Wir loben, we praise. Ihr lebet, you praise. Sie leben, they praise. IMPERFECT TENSE. The Lobe du, praise thou. Lobe er, let him praise. The preceding paragraph must be well understood and the verb thoroughly mastered, before proceeding any further. pupil will derive much benefit from working out other verbs after the above model. The vocabularies will furnish sufficient examples. 5. In compound tenses, the participle or infinitive is put at the end of the sentence, whether affirmative or interrogative, as:-Ich hatte den Brief gelobt, I had praised the letter; Hatte ich den Brief gelebt? had I praised the letter? Wen werden Sie leben? whom will you praise? Werten Sie ihn gelobt haben? will you have praised him? 6. In English we have three forms for the present tense; he praises, he does praise, he is praising. The German has for all these but one form: er lobt. The present, besides its ordinary use, is often used in relation to past time, when the period referred to is still unfinished, as :-Ich wohne schon ein ganzes Jahr in Berlin, I reside (have resided) already a whole year in Berlin. Ich habe das Pferd nur eine Woche, I have (had) the horse only a week. The present is moreover often used for the future, as :— Morgen gehe ich nach Wien, to-morrow I am going to Vienna. 3ch gebe Ihnen einen Gulden für das Buch, I (will) give you a florin for the book. 7. The imperfect is used to denote continuance of being, action, or passion, as :-Die Schlacht bei Leipzig dauerte drei Tage, the battle near Leipsic continued three days. Hence it comes, also, to be used in expressing what is customary or habitual, as:-Die alten Deutschen jagten gern, und führten oft Krieg mit den Römern, the ancient Germans were fond of hunting, and often carried on war with the Romans. Kindred to this, is its use in cases where one action or event is to be represented as simultaneous* with another, as:-Er starb, als er auf dem Lande war, he died, while he was in the country; er spielte, als ich arbeitete, he played while I worked. (See $ 138.) 8. The perfect describes an action as finished without reference to another action, and, unlike the same tense in English, may be used with an adverb that denotes past as well as present time, as :-Er hat ihn gelobt, he has praised him. Er hat ihn gestern gelobt, he (has) praised him yesterday. Er hat ihn heute gelobt, he has praised him to-day. (See § 139.) 9. The second future is often used in reference to past time to indicate a probability, as :-Gr wird es gehört haben, he has probably heard it; literally, he will have heard it. [s, as, than. keit, f. labour. Aufenthalt, m. residence. Bauen, to build. Ginsamkeit, f. solitude. VOCABULARY. Junker, m. young no- | Seele, f. soul. bleman. Körper, m. body. Kränken, to grieve. Kühl, adj. cool. noon. Nacht, f. night. esteem. RÉSUMÉ OF EXAMPLES. Schen, to see. valiant. Täuschen, to deceive, (A) sweet music (attunes) makes the heart glad and cheerful. The friends sought me in the garden. The merchant (has) prized the precious stone very highly. The friend will come to the city this afternoon. He will already have heard the news. EXERCISE 23. 1. Ich liebe das Kind des Nachbars. 2. Der Vater hat mir diesen Brief geschickt. 3. Ich werde ten Freund warnen. 4. Ich habe die ganze Nacht bei dem franken Bruder gewacht. 5. Die Jäger jagten gestern ergen in dem Walte, und werden diesen Nachmittag in der Nähe tes Deries jagen. 6. Mein Freund liebte den Ruhm und den Schimmer. 7. Er hat eine Rose gepflückt, und sie seiner Freundin geschenkt. 8. Cin geschikter Maurer dieser Start hat dieses schöne Haus gebaut. 9. Napoleon fäste ten tarferen Soldaten, und nicht den Junker und Edelmann. 10. Die Arbeiten in meiner Jugend haben meinen Körper gestärkt. 11. Das Gewissen warnt die Menschen vor (§ 116. List) der Sünde. * Simultaneous-existing at the same time. EXERCISE 24. 1. The teacher presented a beautiful book to the [tem] scholar [Schüler]. 2. She had deceived her [ihre] friend. 3. The children have probably (See 9 of this section) grieved the [ten] old father 4. An ill-bred child grieves (the) father and (the) mother. 5. 1 have heard thy voice [Stimme] in the room. 6. He has probably tested the messenger before he sent him to [zu] the [tem] friend [Freunde]. 7. The peasant has covered his house with [mit] straw. 8. This misfortune has probably taught him to be cau tious. 9. I have seen [gesehen] many [viele] fishes in the river. 10. A cool draught strengthens in [in dem] summer the body, as [wic] the dew the [tas] withered grass of the field. 11. (The) pain loves the moon as [als] a [einen] comforter, (the) solitude loves it as a [einen] companion, and (the) piety as the [ten] resi dence of a pure soul. LESSONS IN BOTANY.—V. SECTION VIII-ON THE NERVATION OR VENATION OF LEAVES; AND THE FORMS OF LEAVES. ANIMAL anatomists understand by veins and nerves two widely different portions of the human frame; not so botanists, in whose language veins and nerves mean the same thing, being applied to those cord-like ribs which ramify upon, or rather under, the surface of leaves. The manner in which these nerves or veins are distributed requires careful study, as it serves to distinguish divisions of vegetables from each other. Plants examined with reference to the manner in which their leaves aro veined, admit of being separated into two great divisions: tho parallel-veined, and the meshed or reticulated. For example, in Fig. 19 is given the representation of the leaves of an iris plant, while Fig. 20 is a drawing of a leaf of a melon. How great is the difference between the general In the former the aspect of these leaves we need not say. veins or nerves are almost parallel to each other, or converge at either extremity of the leaf by a very imperceptible gradation and never in any part of the leaf combine or interlace together. In the second example, the melon leaf, this parallelism is totally wanting, and in place of it we find the intermingling of nerves to be so frequent that a complete net-work results, hence this The word leaf and all like it are said to be reticulated. reticulated is derived from the Latin rete, a net. Does not the reader remember that we have already estab. lished the existence of two grand natural divisions amongst flowering plants, as determined by the sectional aspect of their stems? Does he not remember that, from a consideration of this difference of appearance, we have already agreed to divide flowering plants into the exogenous and endogenous? Does he not also remember our promise to tell him other means of distinguishing an endogenous from an exogenous plant by another sign than the sectional aspect of the stem ? One means is this. The leaves of endogenous plants are straight-veined, while the leaves of exogenous are reticulated. Hence, referring to the iris, we know at once that it is an endogenous, or within-growing plant, and we know by the same kind of examination that the melon is an exogenous or withoutgrowing plant. What can be more simple than this mode of discrimination ? Botanists distinguish the various forms that the leaves of plants assume by different names, and that our readers may be enabled to recognise these shapes at sight, and understand the terms that are applied to them, we have given examples of the greater part of them in our illustrations of leaves in the following pages, and will now proceed to describe their peculiarities, and give the derivations of the botanical names by which they are known. Pedate Leaf (Fig. 21).-A leaf of three or five or more divisions. Called a pedate or pedalate leaf, from the Latin pes, a foot, because the outer divisions are parted into several segments. Peltate Leaves (Fig. 22).-Leaves like those of the garden nasturtium, a name improperly applied to some species of Tropæolum or Indian cress. This kind of leaf is called poltate from its fancied resemblance to the pelta, or circular buckler of the ancients, which was held by a thong fastened to the under side. The chief peculiarity of the peltate leaf is that it is attached to its petiole at some part of the under side, and not at the margin, as leaves usually are. 19. IRIS LEAVES. 20. MELON LEAV. 21. PEDATE OR PEDALATE LEAF. 22. PELTATE LEAVES. 23. PINNATE LEAF. 24. ALTERNATE LEAVES. 25. PALMIFID LEAF. 26. FASCICULATE LEAVES. 27. SAGITTATE LEAF. 28. SPATULATE LEAF. 29. VERTICILLATE OR WHORLED LEAVES. 30. PINNATE LEAF, WITH TENDRILS. 31. CORDATE LEAF. 32. CONFLUENT OR PERFOLIATE LEAVES. 33. LANCEOLATE LEAF. 34. ORBICULAR LEAF. Pinnate Leaf (Fig. 23).-A leaf cut like a feather, from the Latin penna, a wing or feather. The leaf figured consists of pairs of leaflets, without foot-stalks, ranged along a common petiole with a single leaflet at its extremity. The points at which the pairs of leaflets join the petiole are not exactly opposite each other. Alternate Leaves (Fig. 24).- Leaves are said to be alternate when they grow from different points of the stem one above another-first on one side and then on the other. Palmifid Leaf (Fig. 25).-Leaves divided about half way down into several lobes, like the leaves of the sycamore, are called palmate or palmifid, from their resemblance to the palm and fingers of the hand when extended. The word is de rived from the Latin palma, the hand, and findo, to cleave or split. Fasciculate Leaves (Fig. 26).-Leaves issuing from a com mon point, and arranged in the form of bundles, from the Latin fasciculus, a little bundle. This peculiar arrangement of the foliage is found in some of the conifere, or trees of the pine tribe. |
