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the liberty of the subject. The wisdom of Elizabeth's advisers had used these instruments sparingly, and had kept them as much as possible out of sight. They were now to fall into Lands which knew not how to use them wisely-hands which clutched the blade instead of the hilt of the weapon, and got themselves badly cut accordingly.

Englishmen could be induced to rise up and say, "This thing shall not be." With a government as weak, or weaker than James's, Charles pretended even greater claims than his father, and exercised his prerogative even more annoyingly and more tyrannically. He levied certain taxes on the people, not only without the consent of Parliament, but in direct contravention of several statutes; he issued proclamations, and required them to be obeyed as laws; he resented the offer of advice as uncounsellors, whose advice was always so unpalatable. Brought up in the notion that kings are appointed directly by God, and that the Church of England was also of Divine institution, he put forward offensively his own claims on the one hand, and backed with all his might the claims of the Church on the other. In order to do this he was necessitated to employ very extensively, in the face of increasing opposition, the two courts of which mention has been made.

The ugly instruments in question were the Star Chamber and High Commission, tribunals unknown to the common law of the land, exercising a jurisdiction quite incompatible with the exist-warrantable interference; and he refused finally to summon the ence of liberty, and apt to become the means of all sorts of oppression. It would take too much space to examine here the whole history of these courts. With regard to the former of them, the Star Chamber, much ignorance prevails, and advantage has been taken to throw a sentimental and false colour upon its actions, with a view to making it an element in the composition of historical romances. It will be sufficient to say that it was a court composed of the king himself, and such members of his privy council as he chose to summon; that it took cognizance of certain offences not then noticed as such by the ordinary law courts, such as libel and slander, and also assumed a right to take any case it chose from the consideration of the regular courts of law, and especially the criminal courts, and deprived a man in this way of the right of trial by his peers, which had been secured for him by Magna Charta. The lords of the council were at once judges and jury, even in cases where the Town was concerned; there was not any appeal from their sentence, and the sentences of the court were often most ruinous otwithstanding the clause of the Great Charter which forbade any man to be fined to such an extent as would prevent his getting a livelihood), even where they did not condemn a man to imprisonment, and sometimes to torture. Any punishment short of death-and many of the punishments came only just short of it-the court of Star Chamber asserted its power to indict; and the claim having been put forward in action at a time when men were not able to question it, came at length to be looked on almost as a matter of course, except by those who suffered by it, and by those faithful guardians of the liberties of England who only bided their time to announce that the court itself was an illegal thing, and ought to be abolished.

The High Commission was a tribunal invented under Queen Elizabeth, a sort of ecclesiastical Star Chamber, composed of ecclesiastics, who made it their business to "sniff out moral taints, and to be down on any one who worshipped God in any other way than that prescribed by the Church of England. It was armed with power to fine and imprison, and this power it ased till resistance became so strong, even under Elizabeth, that it was deemed prudent to admonish it from above. It was sort of Protestant Inquisition; but Englishmen were not Spaniards, and the seeds of priestly tyranny were crushed ere they could grow into a plant. Still it existed, in company with the Star Chamber, which ever waxed more and more intolerable nits administration under the successors of Elizabeth.

Men had endured much from the Tudor princes, as they always will endure at the hands of rulers whose strong personal character makes them respected, even though feared; but from princes of the House of Stuart, they were by no means ready to put up with insult and oppression, so that when members of Parliament were cited to appear in the Star Chamber to answer, as to a crime, for language spoken by them in their place in Pariament, they resisted, and remonstrated with the king, and declared what he had done to be a breach of privilege of Parliament. Against other acts of the Star Chamber, and of the government, the Houses also protested, and Puritans in politics, as well as in religion, who had been trained up in Elizabeth's parliaments, and who sat in the parliaments of James, uttered their words of remonstrance and warning, not fearing even the dismal dungeons in the Tower, which the chances were would be their reward for their boldness.

The king was despicable, his government was weak; the Parliament men were for the most part noble, and unquestionably they were strong; so all through the reign of James I., 1603-1625, there were perpetual conflicts between the sovereign and the people, and though when the king died the Crown had not given up any of its so-called prerogatives, there had been conjured up a deep spirit of resistance to them, a spirit which ound expression in the reign of James's successor, his ill-fated

son, Charles I.

Two members of Parliament, Sir John Eliot and Sir Dudley Digges, were imprisoned by order of the Star Chamber, for "seditious" words used by them, as members, when the Duke of Buckingham was impeached; and when the House refused to vote supplies till its members were released, the king threatened them, but gave way about his prisoners. Then came a series of attacks on the constitution by the king and his ministers, which were repelled with more or less damage to the good-will between him and his people; the king tried to govern without Parliament, and Parliament was resolved there should be no peace for him if he did. With the Earl of Strafford as chief adviser in state affairs, and Archbishop Laud as head of the Church, Charles strove to make himself an absolute king, caring little apparently how rough-shod he rode over the feelings and affections of his people. The honour of the nation was forgotten by a disgraceful foreign policy, pirates from Morocco were allowed to prey upon ships in the English Channel, the influence of England abroad had sunk to zero, and at home all power and statesmanship were directed to the one object of laying the nation, bound hand and foot, at the feet of the king.

The Star Chamber was set in motion against the opponents of the kingly power, and indeed against all who ventured to criticise the actions of government. Sir David Foulis was fined £5,000 for dissuading a friend from paying an unlawful tax; Prynne, a barrister of Lincoln's Inn, for an abusive book he had written against some of the practices in the king's household, and against the ultra-High Church practices of the primate, was sentenced to be disbarred, to be put in the pillory at Cheapside and at Westminster, to have both ears cut off, to be fined £5,000, and to be imprisoned for life! People were ruinously fined for turning their arable land into pasture, in contravention of some obscure law of Henry VII.; for refusing to lend money to the king; and for encroaching on the royal forests. One man, Morley, was fined £1,000 for reviling and striking one of the king's servants at Whitehall; another, named Allison, was fined £1,000, imprisoned, and pilloried at Westminster, for having said falsely that the Archbishop of York had incurred the king's displeasure. For calling the Earl of Suffolk " a base lord," Sir Richard Granville was ordered to pay £4,000 to the earl and £4,000 to the king; Sir G. Markham having thrashed Lord Darcy's huntsman for abusing him, and having promised to do the like by Lord Darcy, should he approve his servant's conduct, was fined £10,000.* Landed proprietors being ordered by the king's proclamation not to live idly in London, but to go to their estates, were fined in the Star Chamber for non-compliance. In 1637 Burton, a divine, and Bastwick, a physician, were condemned for sedition and schism to the same punishment as had been inflicted on Prynne, and that unfortunate man having again offended, was further mutilated and fined another £5,000. Williams, Bishop of Lincoln, was fined £10,000, and sent to the Tower, for some trumpery offence against Land; Osbaldistone, the master of Westminster School, for having nicknamed Laud in a letter to Williams, was ordered to be pilloried before all his school, and to pay £5,000, but he saved himself by flight. Lilburne, charged with distributing seditious pamphlets, was whipped by the hangman, pilloried, and im prisoned with irons on him.

It was under circumstances like these, when despair seemed

This case occurred in the previous reign, but it shows the tension

But much had yet to be borne before order-loving, law-fearing to which the power of the court could be strung.

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to have seized the minds of men; when the king was hurrying forward headlong in a career of violent misgovernment, and no one was found to stand in his way and stop his mad course; when oppression seemed to be triumphant, and right and justice were openly trodden under foot; when honour had gone from, England, and the homes of her people were no longer pleasant places, that Hampden, and Pym, and Hazelrig, and Cromwell proposed to quit her shores and begin life anew in America. The royal order, arbitrarily issued, prevented them as we have seen. They returned to their homes and their duties, and when, compelled as a last resource to summon Parliament, whose advice he had not sought for eleven years, the king again addressed the House of Commons, these men were in their places, resolved to do their duty to the uttermost, even to exceed it

Earl of Strafford, the supporter of the impeachment of Laud, the life and soul of all the constitutional opposition which the parliament made to the king. His name is not to the warrant for the execution of Charles I. (January 30, 1648-49), though with Hampden, Hazelrig, and two more, he was one of those five members whose arrest the king in 1641 endeavoured to effect in person (see "Historic Sketches," IV., page 120); but his name stands out brilliantly among those advanced patriots and purely disinterested men who in 1641, immediately after the execution of Lord Strafford, wrung from the king a consent to the abolition by statute of the courts of Star Chamber and High Commission.

Of Oliver Cromwell, the fourth man among the detained, it is unnecessary now to write. Much has been said for him,

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come will say. Be that as it may, of the men whom Charles's order stopped from emigrating, Hampden in the same year brought forward the question of the king's right to levy taxes, when he resisted even to trial the demand which was made on him for ship-money; and he fell subsequently, mortally wounded, at Chalgrove, early in the war between the king and the parliament. Sir Arthur Hazelrig was foremost among the more intemperate enemies of the king in all the subsequent troubles, but he did not identify himself remarkably with any of the great questions upon which the sword had finally to pronounce judgment. Of Pym much, but scarcely enough, has been written. Unselfish, truly persuaded as to the course he was pursuing, unswerving in his fidelity to that course, incorruptible, calm amidst tumults, a fountain of wisdom in a sea of folly, he was eminently fitted for the post which he a long while filled, that of leader of the popular party in the House of Commons. He was the framer of the articles of impeachment against the

DIED 1643.

much more, but less weighty, has been said against him; but his name and his character have brightened since the light of honest, critical inquiry was turned upon him. Some there are who cannot admire him enough for his policy, which raised the foreign influence of England to a height it had not attained since Henry the Fifth was crowned in France, and which at home brought order, albeit by a stern method, out of the chaos into which the Great Rebellion had thrown all things. Others there are who seem to think that nothing can atone for a usurpation which nevertheless declined to perpetuate itself by esta blishing a dynasty, and who can never forgive or forget the fact that Cromwell's name appears among the first signatures on Charles's death-warrant, and that but for him that death-warrant would never have been written.*

For Synopsis of Events in the Life and Reign of Charles I., and List of Contemporary Sovereigns, see page 122.

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to our animal than to our intellectual life, and the appetites which arise from a desire to gratify these senses have always been considered to be less refined and more sensual than those which pertain to the senses of sight and hearing. It is true that a spurious delicacy and refinement of the sense of smell have caused the wealthier classes in times of high civilisation to delight in costly and rare essences and scents; but the extensive use of these has been the characteristic of effeminate races, and of times when civilisation, in its highest sense, had begun to succumb to luxury. When Rome boasted of her

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L. VERTICAL SECTION OF HUMAN HEAD, SHOWING THE RELATION OF THE PASSAGES FOR AIR AND FOOD. II. FRAMEWORK OF THE NOSE. III. MUSCLES OF THE NOSE. IV. SEPTUM OF THE NOSE AND ITS NERVES.

Ref. to Nos. in Figs.-I. 1, upper turbinated bone; 2, middle do. ; 3, lower do. ; 4, hole leading to the canal which drains the eye; 5, Eustachian hole; 6, palate; 7, uvula; 8, epiglottis; 9, pharynx; 10, larynx; 11, cricoid cartilage; 12, thyroid cartilage; 13, cavity of the mouth.

II. 1, part of upper jaw bone; 2, nose bone; 3, upper side cartilage; 4, lower do.; 5, cellular tissue. III. 1, pyramidal muscle of the nose; 2, muscle to lift the side cartilages; 3, compressor of the nose; 4, front dilator of the nostril; 5, small compressor of the nostril; 6, hind dilator of the nostril; 7, muscle to pull down the side cartilages. IV. 1, nerve of the lobe of nose; 2, olfactory lobe; 3, nerves of the septum; 4, nerve of palate.

they proceed. These vibrations, therefore, can inform the mind concerning objects far removed from its instrument, the body, with an accuracy which makes us scorn the idea that we can be deceived in that which our eyes have seen and our ears heard. Through these avenues the human mind extends itself, till it touches, and by the aid of reason may be said to grasp, the universe; and the highest powers of the mind are employed in interpreting the messages brought to us by light and sound.

In marked contrast to these are the remaining senses of which we have to write-namely, those of smell, taste, and touch. These senses are excited by material particles applied directly to those parts of the body which can take note of their peculiar qualities, and hence they are far less necessarily con

costly perfumes, she had almost ceased from the prouder boast of being mistress of the world; and the more manly tone of modern and western society has decided between Hotspur and the fop, to the prejudice of the latter.

Matter or material substances exist in three forms-the solid, liquid, and gaseous; and almost all substances can be made to assume each of these forms. Thus ice may be transformed into water and into steam. When the particles of matter hang together so closely and rigidly that they will not move over one another without the application of force, they form a solid. When the particles hang together so loosely that they will move over and round each other with the slightest force, so that they can scarcely be said to hang together at all, the substance is called a liquid. When the particles not only do

entrance above, and the epiglottis is bent down, while the sides of the hole below are so contracted beneath its overhanging and protecting hood, that the food passes over it, and the drink on each side of it, without danger of their making an entrance into the larynx. It will be seen that the effluvium from food not only rises into the nasal organ when it is presented to the mouth, but passes to it, also, after it has been introduced into the mouth, so that the nose is an effective guard to this entrance, as well as to that which it more immediately occupies.

The external protecting framework, or nose, covers in the nasal chambers in front, and, on account of its oblique direction, overhangs the orifices, which are further defended from intrusive solids by a number of stiff hairs. At the upper part, or roof of the nose, this framework is of bone, because there no flexibility is required, but towards the point it is composed of cartilages, which are more elastic, and which can also move in relation to one another, while the outer and lower sides of the orifices are composed of yet more bendable cellular tissue. These wings of the nose can play up and down, and to and from, the central partition by the action of muscles, so as to enlarge, contract, or slightly alter the direction of the openings; but the framework is, nevertheless, stiff enough to keep the nostrils moderately distended while in a state of rest. Stretching horizontally backward from the nose are the nasal chambers, divided from one another by a plain partition, which is bony behind and gristly in front, and they pass under the chamber of the brain and over the cavity of the mouth, to open backward over the throat. Solid floors of bone divide this second storey of the head from the upper and lower rooms, and bones also wall in the right and left sides. These walls, however, are not smooth and plain like the central partition, but have three bony projections one above the other, which are called turbinated bones, because they are curled upon themselves like scrolls, the first conver surface of the scroll being directed inwards. These turbinated bones stretch inwards, nearly reaching the plain partition, and thus divide each lateral chamber into three horizontal passages, called the upper, middle, and lower meatuses. All the interior of the chambers is covered with a membrane, which is very thick and pulpy on the scroll bones, the roof of the chamber, and central partition. This membrane is peculiar in that it secretes a slimy mucus, it is very vascular, and so contains much blood, and the ultimate fibres of the nerve of smell lose themselves in its substance. The nervous apparatus of smell on each side arises from under the brain by three roots; it is in the shape of a little round horizontal bar of brain matter, ending in a bulb, and it lies in a groove of the soft brain above, and of the hard bone beneath, being separated from its fellow by s crest of bone. These bulbs being placed in the brain-case, send down, from all along their course, through many holes in the bones on which they lie, nervous cords, which divide and subdivide, and run, some to the vertical central partition, some to the top scroll-bone, and some to the roof of the chamber. Their distribution, of course, indicates where the sense of smell resides, that is, not in the main channel of the air, which passes along the floor of the passage, but in the upper part of the chamber. Hence, when we want to smell anything, we take means to get the gas driven upward into the upper part of the nose. This is effected by contracting the nostrils, and drawing the air suddenly and sharply in, so that it is directed upwards instead of along the floor of the passage.

not hang together, but exert a force to fly off from one another, the substance they form is called a gas. The sense of touch, strictly and properly defined-that is, excluding the sensation of heat and of resistance-has to do with solids. The sense of taste has to do with liquids only, as nothing is sapid which is not liquid or capable of being dissolved. The sense of smell occupies itself with gases; for these alone can gain access to the organ, or cause the sensation of smell. Lest the reader should suppose this statement opposed to the testimony of his experience, from the well-known fact that solids, such as cedarwood, camphor, and musk, excite the sensation of smell, while ordinary scents are preserved and carried about in a liquid form, it must be explained that these substances contain volatile essential principles, which, on free exposure to the air, are slowly given off in a state of vapour. Some solids give off particles of their substance in a state of vapour without first becoming liquid, as is ordinarily the case. Thus snow, which coats the earth in winter, will diminish daily, even though the air is frosty, and there is no melting process going on. In other cases, as in cedar-wood, oils naturally volatile seem to be long entangled in the solid matter, and but slowly rendered to the air; but their odoriferous power is so great that very small portions of them produce strong perfumes. This is sometimes truly wonderful. Dr. Carpenter states that a grain of musk may be freely exposed to the air for ten years, during which time it perfumes the whole surrounding air; yet when weighed, there is no perceptible loss observed. Matters which exhale odorous emanations are detected at a great distance, from the tendency of gases to pass through and diffuse themselves equably throughout all other gases. Thus, though there be but a very small escape of coal-gas in one part of the room, it soon announces itself to the nose in every corner of the apartment. This is a faculty peculiar to gases, and produces many interesting results, which, however, cannot now be dwelt upon. The final cause for which the sense of smell is given to the higher animals-i.e., to beasts, birds, and reptiles-is primarily to warn them against receiving into the lungs and stomach noxious matters, and secondarily to guide them in the search for wholesome air and food. As a rule, to which, however, there are many exceptions, nauseous smells are associated with noxious gases, and that food which gives off a pleasant aroma is of a nature, and in a condition, to supply good nutriment. The bulk of the atmosphere consists of inodorous gases, admirably mixed so as to suit the purposes of respiration, and the main products of vegetable life are nutritive and bland; but small quantities of destructive effluvia and of deadly poisons are no uncommon things in nature, and unless some kind of quarantine were exercised on air and food, the system could not be maintained in health. True, therefore, to its office of sanitary inspector, the organ of smell holds a position at the entrance of the passages for air and food. In order to appreciate its office it is necessary to understand the relation of these passages to one another. This is best done by a reference to the illustration. The largest figure represents the nose chamber of the left side; the hollow of the mouth below it; the pharynx, or channel for food, running down towards the stomach on the left side (of the figure); and the larynx, or channel of the air, when pursuing its course to the lungs, parallel to it, on the right-hand side, as they would appear if the head were cut in two with the downward stroke of a sharp, resistless knife, made as near to the middle plane as possible, yet so as to be on the left of the upright partition between the two nose-chambers. The ordinary course of the air, when no food is being swallowed, is upward through the nostril, then horizontally through the lower part of the nose-chambers, then downward and forward behind the soft palate, entering the hole immediately below the part marked as the "epiglottis," and so on to the lungs. The simpler course of the food is horizontally through the mouth, and then vertically downward. If the reader has understood the engraving, he will see that the air and food passages cross one another; or, perhaps, it makes it more clear There are curious connections between the nasal chambers to say that the air passage enters the food canal from above, and the hollows in many of the bones of the face and head, and passes out again below and in front of it. This is a which are analogous to the air cavities of birds' bones. The singular arrangement, and open, one would have said, to the nose has also another office, in that it serves as a sewer for obvious objection that the food might get into the lungs, where the eye. Two little ducts from the inner corner of the eye it is not only not wanted, but could not be for a moment join and form a tube, which, after passing through a bony canal, endured. This catastrophe is, however, provided against by delivers its drainage into the lower meatus of the nose by a the act of swallowing, in which the soft palate closes the air small orifice, shown in the engraving. Hence, violent blowing

It has been remarked that the membrane of the nose is very full of blood-vessels, and this is important, because the presence of much warm blood, distributed over a surface purposely folded to give it a greater extent, has a tendency to warm the cold air as it passes through the complicated channels before it is introduced into the lungs. That cold air, introduced through the nose, instead of through the mouth, is less likely to be injurions is so far recognised, that respirators are used by delicate persons in cold air, while it is not thought necessary thus to protect the nose.

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of the nose is often resorted to in order to clear the eye from dust and tears.

So far as concerns ourselves, the use of the olfactory organ is rather to teach us what to avoid than what to seek, and the pleasures of smell are rather incidental to other healthful conditions than much prized on their own account; yet the varied fragrance of a thousand flowers, so delicately diffused as not to pall the sense, or to surcharge the pure air, is no small addition to the delights of the garden and the country. If, however, we endeavour to imprison these odours, and make them our own, they are nearly always suggestive of a sickly effeminacy, and have called down sneers on their possessors. Thus, Cowper writes

"His better hand, more busy, gives the nose
Its burgamot;"

and Tennyson

"His essences turned the live air sick;"

and again Shakespeare

"He was perfumed like a milliner."

LESSONS IN ENGLISH.-VIII.

PREFIXES (continued).

Apo, of Greek origin, from; as apostle, from the Greek aro (pronounced ap'-o), from, and σTEAλ@ (pronounced stel'-lo), I send; that is, a person sent from one to another, a messenger.

Apo has the force of our English prefix un, as in uncover. This is its exact import in the word apocalypse, a revelation, from the Greek awо, and каλνят (pronounced ka-lupe'-to), I conceal; that is, according to the Latin, an unveiling; and according to the Greek, an uncovering.

"O for that warning voice which he who saw

Th' apocalypse, heard cry in heaven aloud."-Milton.

Arch (ch sounded like k), of Greek origin (from apxn, pronounced ar-ke, a beginning), in the forms arch, arche, and archy, denotes the origin, the head, and hence government. It is the second syllable in monarch, monarchy; and as the letter which in Greek represents the ch is pronounced like k, arch thus introduces a Greek pronunciation into our tongue. Hence you may learn the error which pronounces architect (from apyn, first, or head, and TEKTOV, pronounced teck'-ton, a maker or builder), as if its arch was pronounced like the monosyllabic word arch; that is, the arch in a building.

Besides a type and an antitype, theology recognises an archetype, or original type, an original mould or model, in which, in virtue of which, and after the likeness of which, all created beings were formed, as was taught by the Greek philosopher

Plato.

"There were other objects of the mind, universal, eternal, immutable, which they called original ideas, all originally contained in one archetypal mind or understanding, and from thence participated by

inferior minds and souls."-Cudworth.

This word arch (from apxn) is found also pronounced in the ordinary English manner, as in archbishop-that is, a chief bishop, the chief bishop of a province. In its signification of chief it is used also to denote something questionable, bad, or humorous.

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'Doggett thanked me, and after his comic manner spoke his request with so arch a leer that I promised," etc.-Tatler.

"Come, tell us honestly, Frank,' said the squire with his usual archness, 'suppose the church, your present mistress, drest in lawn sleeves, on one hand, and Miss Sophia, with no lawn about her, on the other, which would you be for?'"--Goldsmith.

Auto, of Greek origin, equivalent to self, is found in autocrat, from the Greek autos (pronounced aw'-tos), one's self, and paria (pronounced krat'-e-a), power, government, one who governs of himself and by himself; hence autocracy is arbitrary power, despotism.

"The divine will is absolute; it is its own reason; it is both the producer and the ground of all its acts. It moves not by the external impulse, or inclination of objects, but determines itself by an absolute autceracy."-South.

Be, of Saxon origin, in the forms be and by, connected pro

bably with the verb to be and. the preposition by, denoting the active power or agent, as a prefix, performs the part of an intensive, and increases, sometimes in a bad sense, the inherent import of a word; e.g., beloved, bedaub, besmear, bepraise. In other cases it seems to do little more than aid in forming words, as an adverb out of an adjective; as behind (hind, hinder), before, below, beneath. The adverb betimes (early) is made up of by and time, bytime; that is, in time.

"He that goes out betimes in the morning is more like to dispatch his journey than he that lingers till the day be spent."-Bishop Hall. By means also, near, as "Stand by me."

"And as he (Jesus) passed by, he saw Levi" (Mark ii. 14). Hence the phrase by and by denoted immediately, as may be seen in Mark vi. 25, in which, and in other passages of Scripture, it is the representation of a Greek word which signifies straightway, forthwith. The repetition of the by may have had emphasis for its object. Hence is explained the word by-stander, that is, one who stands near. At present, by and by seems in conversation to intimate some little distance of time from the actual moment.

Bene, a prefix of Latin origin (from bonus, good; bene, well), is found in union with words of Latin origin; thus with facio, I do, and its parts facere, factum (in combination a may pass into i), it forms benefaction, benefit, beneficial, beneficent; so in union with volo, I am willing, it forms benevolent. Hence, one who is with dico, I say (dicere, dictum), bene forms benediction, and benevolent is one who wishes well; and one who is beneficent is one who does well; a benediction is a good word, a blessing, and Latin male (pronounced ma'-le), ill or evil. The contrast is well a benefaction is a good deed, a gift. The opposite prefix is the illustrated in these words, where, as in other instances, the old spelling is retained, as offering so many historical facts

"The kyng, willing to show that this benefit was to hym much acceptable, and not worthy to be put in oblivion, called this grant of money a benevolence, notwithstanding that many with grudge and malevolence gave great summes toward the new foude (found) benevolence.”—Hall,

"Edward IV."

Bi, in the forms of bi and bis, of Latin origin (bis, twice), has in English the force of two or twice; biped (pes, Latin, a foot), two-footed, biscuit (cuire, French, to cook), twice-cooked.

"The inconvenience attending the form of the year above men.

tioned, was in a great measure remedied by the Romans in the time of Julius Cæsar, who added one day every fourth year; which (from the place of its insertion, viz., after the sixth of the calends of March) was called bissextile or leap-year."-Priestly, on History.

Cata, of Greek origin (kara, pronounced kat'-a, down), properly denotes motion in a downward direction, and appears in the word cataract (from the Greek kara and paσow, pronounced signifies a breaking-down; that is, of the rock which leads to a ras'-so, I strike or dash), which, according to its derivation, origin, as in cataclysm (from the Greek Karakλvσμos, pronounced downfall of water. This prefix is found in other words of Greek kat-a-kluse'-mos, a deluge, from the verb karakλν(w, pronounced kat-a-klu'-zo, to inundate), a term applied to the deluge.

eight feet in height, and from two to five in breadth, extending to an immense and almost unknown length, and branching out into various walks under the city of Rome."-Eustace, “Italy."

"The catacombs are subterranean streets or galleries from four to

Cent, of Latin origin, from centum, a hundred, is found in centenary, a hundred or hundredth; centuple, a hundred-fold;

centurion, a commander of a hundred soldiers in the Roman army. The old Saxon word hundredor may be compared with centurion.

"Hundredors, aldermen, magistrates, etc."-Spelman.

The import of hundredor or hundreder may be learnt from the following words, describing the ancient civil division of England for the purpose of government:

"As ten families of freeholders made up a town or tithing (a tenth), so ten tithings composed a superior division, called a hundred, as con sisting of ten times ten families."-Blackstone, "Commentaries."

Circum, of Latin origin (Latin, circus, a circle or ring), signifies around, as in circumstances (from circum, and the Latin verb sto, I stand), literally the things which stand around you; what has

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