at the other side; observe the tone, and consequently the amount of pressure required for the cast shadow.

There is a very useful little instrument for shading, called a stump, it is made either of leather or paper, rolled up to about the length and thickness of the finger, and pointed at each end. When used, black chalk or lead is ground to a powder, the point of the stump is dipped into it, and then rubbed over the part to be shaded until an even tint is produced. We merely mention the stump here and explain its use, but at present we will put it aside, and keep to the line method until the pupil has thoroughly mastered it; afterwards we will draw his attention to the use of the stump, as capable of producing a ground for shadows to be lined over afterwards. The great art of shading a drawing well is to make use of the shadows, half tints, and

our admiration is excited by the correctness and beauty of the form which the line alone determines: now this feeling must be carried on, when introducing the shadows and the infinite number of minor tones, by preserving all that the line intended to give, whilst our attention is engrossed upon the shadows. In Fig. 73 there are several points of importance which must not be passed over: the pupil will notice that the wall to the left has the upper edges of each stone left untouched, because these edges, as they "round off" to the horizontal surface, meeting the mortar, catch the light more forcibly than the faces of the stones which are in a perpendicular position. In old stone walls of ruins these effects are continually to be seen, and must not be disregarded. The depth or intensity of shadows may not only be increased or diminished according to the pressure of the pencil

minor (or lighter) tones, as a means of distinguishing the form of the object, whether as to its general effect, or to the most minute and delicate details. We know that, in nature, objects are not represented to us by lines drawn about their edges; they are distinguishable from each other only by light and shade and colour: therefore, as it is necessary in the first instance to determine by an outline the boundary or form of the object, with all its various changes of surface, so we must as we proceed with the picture, by adding light, and shade, and colour, gradually lose the drawn line in the work, so as to avoid harshness, and that appearance which would strike us as if it had been cut out with a penknife. Of course we cannot altogether do without the line of the form, nor is it desirable that we should; and since our intention is to give as intelligible a representation of the object as we can, lines may be judiciously left without offending the eye by any unseemly harshness of expression. A line only determines the boundary of an object, that is, it gives the form; and in simple outline only, where no light and shade are added,

employed, but also by the distance the lines are drawn apartcloser together when depth is required, and wider when the shadows are to be lighter. The lines which produce the cast shadow of the wall on the horizontal surface of the steps must be drawn towards the vanishing point of the steps, and the edge of the shadow is determined by the following rule:-Let A (Fig. 74) be the wall causing the shadow on the steps; let the dotted lines a b, c d, ef, etc., represent the inclination of the sun's rays (at an angle with the horizon, but parallel with the picture plane). As the end of the wall rises perpendicularly from the end of the step at k, therefore the shadow of the upper edge a will be at b, and the shadow of a c will be bg, directed towards the vanishing point of the wall; and because the sun's rays are parallel with the picture plane, and the wall at right angles with the picture plane, therefore its shadow will be the same, and consequently both the edge of the wall and its shadow have the same vanishing point, which in this case is the PS (point of sight). Thus it will be seen that the edge of the shadow on the front of the

works. FORMS OF NOUNS AND ADJECTIVES OF THE FIRST, SECOND, AND THIRD DECLENSIONS.

EXAMPLE.-Bonus puer, m., a good boy; bona soror, f., a good sister; bonum nomen, n., a good name.

audaces feminæ. audacibus feminis.

audacibus animalibus.

According to these paradigms or examples form the fol

lowing:

N. vir major, m., a great man.
G. viri majoris, of a greater man, etc.
N. mulier major, f., a greater woman.
G. mulieris majoris, of a greater
woman, etc.

N. acetum acre, n., sharp vinegar.
G. aceti acris, of sharp vinegar, etc.
N. audax agmen, n., a daring band.
G. audacis agminis, etc.

silva magna, f., a great wood. silvæ magnæ, of a great wood, etc. leæna ferox, f., a fierce lioness. leænæ ferocis, of a fierce lioness,

etc.

pratum sterile, n., an unfruitful
prati sterilis, etc. [meadow.
Julius Cæsar, m., Julius Cæsar.
Julii Cæsaris, etc.

N. Cicero disertus, m., eloquent Cicero.
G. Ciceronis diserti, etc.

Avis, -is, f., a bird.
Consto, 1, I consist of.
Facile, adv., casily.
Fortis, -e, brave.
Fundamentum, -i, n.,
a foundation.
Gravis, -e, heavy,

severe.

Habeo, 2, I have. Hostis, -is, m., an enemy. Immortalis, -e, immortal. Industria, -æ, f., diligence.

VOCABULARY.

Incumbo, 3 (with in and the ac.), I apply to. Litera, in the singular, signifies a letter of the alphabet. Literæ, -arum, f., letters, literature, knowledge. Literæ, in the plural,

means also a letter, that is, an epistle (epistola).

Meus, mea, meum, my.

Mores, in the plural, denotes morals, character.

Mortalis, -e, mortal. Mos, moris, m., a custom.

Omnis, e, every one; in the plural, all. Piētas, -ātis, f., piety. Tuus, tua, tuum, thine. Virtus, -ūtis, f., vir tue (originally va lour). Vox, vocis, f., a voice.

EXERCISE 33,-LATIN-ENGLISH.

1. Miles forti animo pugnare debet. 2. Homines corpora mortalia, animos immortales habent. 3. Nonne sunt hominibus mortalia corpora? 4. Suavi voce avium delector. 5. Suavine avium voce delectaris ? 6. Pueri in literas incumbere debent alăcri animo. 7. Cur non in literas incumbitis, pueri, alăcri animo? 8. Discipulorum laus constat bonis moribus et acri (severe) industriâ. 9. Acri industria pater meus incumbit in literas. 10. Pietas omnium virtutum est 12. Vin fundamentum. 11. Tuæ virtutes, O mater, me delectant. 13. fortes non vincuntur doloribus gravibus. Non cedimus hostibus audacibus. 14. Vox omnis bene auditur a matre tuâ. 15. Tuæ voces, soror, mihi sunt dulces.

EXERCISE 34.-ENGLISH-LATIN.

1. Brave men yield not to enemies. 2. A bold band is not easily conquered. 3. My son studies with an active (alacri) mind. 4. Do thy sisters love knowledge? 5. They are delighted by the voices of the birds. 6. The birds of the enemy have sweet voices. 7. My scholars apply well to knowledge. 8. The bold band is conquered by

10. The piety of the mother delights the son. 11. The daughter is delighted by the virtue of the father. 12. The virtue of boys consists 13. My mother's letter (the letter of in industry and good character.

my mother) is heard by all.

KEY TO EXERCISES IN LESSONS IN LATIN.-IX.
EXERCISE 29.-LATIN-ENGLISH.

1. Artificers ought to teach boys. 2. The king moves (his) thumb. 3. Kings guard the laws. 4. Laws are guarded by kings. 5. The son bites (his) thumb. 6. The horsemen are harassed (grieved). 7. Artists adorn cities. 8. The wages of artificers support (their) sons and daughters. 9. The bachelor sleeps. 10. The people are defended. 11. The race of the artificer is praised. 12. Hast thou corn-land? 13. The neck of the soldier is injured. 14. The age of the bachelor is great.

EXERCISE 30.-ENGLISH-LATIN.

1. Artifices defendo. 2. Artifices a me defenduntur. 3. Estne illi merces ? 4. Pecus non est illi. 5. In cervice pungor. 6. Artifices pingunt pecora. 7. Funestæ sunt regum leges. 8. Seges equitis ceditur. 9. Cur vituperatur cælebs ? 10. Cælibes vituperat plebs.

11. Sunt militibus mercedes. 12. Multa docet ætas. EXERCISE 31.-LATIN-ENGLISH.

1. Birds deceive bachelors. 2. Mothers are slain by fevers. 3. I greatly like the sea. 4. The sea is liked by sailors. 5. Husbandmen cultivate corn-fields. 6. There are sailors in the ships. 7. There is fire in the globe. 8. The brothers are in the fires (flames). 9. The goddesses have altars. 10. Have not the gods altars? 11. The husbandmen defend the sheepfolds with a hatchet.

EXERCISE 32.-ENGLISH-LATIN.

1. Corporibus naves defendunt nautæ. 2. In rupibus sunt aves. 3. A nautis rupes ne amantur? 4. Nocet plebi cædes. 5. Aves feriunt nubes. 6. Secures defendunt naves. 7. Civium aves nocentur. 8. Principis sedile laudatur. 9. Vincimus principum comites.

LESSONS IN ENGLISH.-X.

DERIVATION.-PREFIXES (continued).

In the prefixes and quotations given in former lessons, we may find a species of indirect history. The facts set forth in connection with them, show us how much ours is a composite language, a language that is like the composite order of architecture, made up of elements derived from different sources. The facts also inform us that the English nation has been closely connected with the French, and so is much indebted to the ancient Latins. To the corrupt Latin of the Middle Ages we are also obviously indebted; and from the Greek tongue we have derived words and parts of words. Nor have Italy and Spain failed to contribute to the enrichment of our language. In historical or genealogical relations, we Englishmen of this day are connected with the Norman baron as well as the Saxon churl; with the monk and the schoolmen, no less than with the conquerors of the world; and may fancy the line of our relationship to stretch from the Thames to the Rhine, and from the Rhine even to the Indus and the Ganges. If every sentence that has been written to convey to the world a history of England had totally perished, still scholars, out of the fossil remains of the nation discoverable in its words, would, after the manner of the geologists, be able to reproduce the great outlines of our English life. Even single words are full of the elements of history. Those elements are often beneath the surface; at least they are not obvious to the common eye. I give you, however, an instance, the historical value of which is clear to all. When, in the early part of the reign of Charles I., the Puritan party began to rise against the royal authority, the more demure members of the party wore their hair cropped so close and short, as, in contrast with the full and flowing locks of the courtiers, to give their Leads the appearance of so many bowls. Queen Henrietta Maria, the spouse of Charles, observing this marked peculiarity, graphically as well as wittily termed them roundheads. The particular occasion was the following:-" Samuel Barnadiston, a noted republican, was, in his youth, the leader of a deputation of London apprentices, for the purpose of communicating to Parliament their notions regarding civil and religious govern

ment.

The queen, who saw this posse arrive at Whitehall, then first noticed the extraordinary roundness of their closely-clipped heads, and saw at the same time that Samuel was a personable apprentice; upon which she exclaimed, 'La! what a handsome young roundhead!' The exactness of the descriptive appellation fixed it at once as a party name; roundheads they were called from that moment, and roundheads they will remain while history endures."* You thus see that the term "Roundhead" contains a history. It also paints a picture. In the word "roundhead' we possess an historical picture; and the picture which it paints all can appreciate. Why? Because the word consists of Saxon terms, nursery terms. Translate the Saxon "roundhead" into Latin, rotundum caput, and so far from painting a picture, the term does not convey any meaning to the mere English scholar. If, then, you would be understood by the

"Lives of the Queens of England," by Agnes Strickland, vol. viii., p. 99.

people, use words of Saxon origin. But if you would be well acquainted with the English language, study its Latin, and generally its foreign elements, as these are they with which you do not become familiar in the nursery, and which consequently present difficulties, and obstruct the pathway to knowledge These remarks suggest reasons why we are entering so fully into the composition of English words.

Hyper, of Greek origin (rep, pronounced hu'-per, upon, over, too much), found in hypercritic; that is, one who is too critical, unjustifiably critical.

"The hypercriticall controuller of poets, Julius Scaliger, doth so severely censure nations, that he seemeth to sit in the chaire of the scornfull."-Camden, "Remaines."

Hypo, of Greek origin (no, pronounced hu-po), with the import of under, appears in hypocrisy, acting under a mask, acting an assumed character, involving both simulation or pretending to something you are not, and dissimulation or concealing what you are. Hypo appears also in hypotenuse (Greek, TEIVELV, pronounced ti-nine, to stretch).

"The square of the hypotenuse in a right-angled triangle is equal to the squares of the two other sides."-Locke, Human Understanding." Hypo appears also in hypothesis (Greek, Onois, pronounced the-sis, a placing), which by its derivation signifies a placing under, as is intimated in the Latin supposition (sub, under; and ponere, to place). An hypothesis, then, is a supposition-something put under certain phenomena or appearances in order to explain their cause or immediate origin.

"Any hypothesis which possesses a sufficient degree of plausibility to account for a number of facts, helps us to digest these facts in crucis (that is, decisive tests) for the sake of future inquiries."proper order, to bring new ones to light, and to make experimenta Hartley, "On Man."

In, of Latin origin, signifying in, into, and upon, having also a negative force, appears in these forms, namely, ig, il, im, in, ir, is.

Ig, as in the Latin word gnoramus, denoting one who knows nothing. Here g makes the statement in the verb equivalent to a negative proposition. Ignoramus properly signifies we are ignorant. An ignoramus once in a letter to me spoke of ignorami, fancying, with a smattering of Latin, that the plural of mus was mi. If ignoramus is used in the plural, it must stand as ignoramuses; but Beaumont uses ignoramus itself as a plural.

Ignoramus

"Give blockheads beere,

And silly ignoramus, such as think
There's powder-treason in all Spanish drink."
is used also as an adjective; e. g.,

"Let ignoramus juries find no traitors;
And ignoramus poets scribble satires."

Il, as in illegal, not legal; illegitimate, not legitimate, the root of both being iex, legis, Latin, a law. In illustrate (Latin, lux, light), the il denotes upon; illustrate is to throw light upon a subject. In illusory (Latin, ludo, I play, cheat), deceptive, the il seems to be little more than intensive. Im, into, as imbibe (Latin, bibo, I drink), imbody (embody). "The soul grows clotted by contagion, Imbodies and imbrutes, till she quite lose The divine property of her first being."-Milton. In imbitter, the m (or em) is intensive or augmentive. In

immature (Latin, maturus, ripe), the im is negative—immature

mindful); immemorial usage is usage time out of mind.

means unripe; im is negative also in immemorial (Latin, memor,

"And though some impious wits do questions move, And doubt if souls immortal be or no, That doubt their immortality doth prove, Because they seem immortal things to know." The root of immortal is the Latin mors (mortis in the genitive), death; whence mortal.

In, in, as in inclose (Latin, claudo, I close), to shut in; in, into, as income; in means also not, as incognito (abridged into incog.), a word coming to us from the Latin incognitus, unknown, through the Spanish incognito. Inconvenient is made up of in, not, cum, with, and venio, I come; inconvenient, therefore, is that which does not come with you, does not agree with your

wach position, or wishes. In adigent (Latin, indigeo, I wwe, from in and egeo), needy, the in is augmentive.

"Theunstories, the great Athenian general, being asked whether he would choose to marry his daughter to an indigent man of merit, or to worthless man of an estate, replied, that he should prefer a man without an estate, to an estate without a man."-Spectator.

Ir, not, as in irreparable (from the Latin through the French; Latin, reparare, to get again), not to be got again, not to be regained or restored.

"Nor does she this irreparable woe

To shipwreck, war, or wasting sickness, owe;
But her own hands, the tools of envious fate,
Wrought the dire mischief which she mourns too late."
66
Lewis, Statius."

In irruption (Latin, rumpo, I break), the ir has the force of into; the opposite of irruption, a breaking into, is eruption, a breaking out of. Compare corruption, a breaking together, a breaking up, a crumbling.

In passes into the form is in isolated (Latin, insula, an island), derived immediately from the French isolé; isolated, or rather insulated, means standing alone, like an island in the sea. The French form gains prevalence, and has given rise to the verb

isolate and the noun isolation.

Inter, of Latin origin (compare enter as above), signifying between, among; as intermarry, said of families, members of which marry one another; inter is found also in interpolate, to introduce. This is a word which has given trouble to the etymologists. Both Richardson and Du Cange connect it with polire, to polish. This view makes interpolation a sort of amendment, whereas the word carries with it the idea of corruption and deprivation. Interpolation seems to me a low Latin word, whose root is the classical Latin pello (pulsus), I drive, so that interpolation is something thrust in, something foisted on. This is the sense in which the word is generally used, denoting the unjustifiable additions and insertions made to manuscripts by later hands than those by which they were originally composed.

"The very distances of places, as well as numbers of the books, demonstrate that there could be no collusion, no altering nor interpolating one copy by another, nor all by any of them."-Bentley, “On Freethinking."

"The larger epistles of Ignatius are generally supposed to be interpolated."-Jortin, "Ecclesiastical History."

Inter-minable is thus printed in "Richardson's Dictionary," as though the word was from the Latin inter, and minor, I threaten; whereas it is made up of in, not, and terminus, a limit, or boundary, and so is equivalent to unlimited, or unbounded;

as in

"Plains immeuse

Lie stretched below, interminable meads

And vast savannahs, where the wandering eye, Unfixt, is in a verdant ocean lost."

Thomson, "Summer."

Intra, of Latin origin, signifying within, occurs in the forms intra and intro, e.g., as in the recent word intramural (Latin, murus, the wall of a city), intramural interments, and introduce (Latin, duco, I lead), to lead within; also intromit (Latin, mitto, I send), to send or let in.

"So that I (Guido Reni) was forced to make an introspection into mine own mind, and into that idea of beauty which I have formed in my own imagination."-Dryden, “Parallel."

Magn, of Latin origin (magnus, great), in the forms magna and magni, enters into the composition of the following words: magnanimity (Latin, animus, mind), greatness of mind; magnify (Latin, facio, I make), to make great, extol; magniloquence (Latin, loquor, I speak), great talk. Magnify is connected with the words magnificence, magnificent, magnifier. From magnus, great, comes also magnitude.

"To these, thy naval streams,
Thy frequent towns superb, of busy trade,
And ports magnific add, and stately ships,
Innumerous."

Dyer.

Mal, or male, of Latin origin (malum, evil), forms a set of words the opposites of words containing bene; as malevolence, benevolence; malediction, benediction. Male is found in maladministration and maltreat; malefactions (Latin, facio, I do), are misdeeds.

disorder, presents itself in melancholy, literally, black bile (from Melan, of Greek origin (ueλas, pronounced mel-as, black), to the Greek μeλas, black, and xoλn, pronounced kol'-e, bile), whence it was thought came habitual sadness.

"But hail, thou goddess, sage and holy,

Hail, divinest melancholy!

Whose saintly visage is too bright

To hit the sense of human sight;

And therefore to our weaker view

O'erlaid with black, staid Wisdom's hue."

Milton, "Il Penseroso,"

It is

Meta, of Greek origin (uera, pronounced met-ta), signifying after, and denoting change, transference, is found in metaphor (from the Greek pepw, pronounced fer'-ro, I bear), a figure of speech in which there is a transference of the literal meaning of the word. Words originally represented objects of sense. only by accommodation or transference that the word which set forth some sensible objects has come to denote a state of mind or feeling. Thus acute, which now describes a shrewd, clever mind, properly signifies sharp, piercing-from the Latin acu, a needle. In this view, all words now applied to mental or moral phenomena, contain metaphors. Instances may be given in re flect (Latin, re, back, and flecto, I bend), abstract (Latin, ab, from; and traho, I draw), conceive (Latin, cum, with, and capio, I take), and of course their corresponding nouns; also, in hard (hard heart), open (open disposition), light (light-hearted). The term metaphor, however, is specially given to more marked and striking, not to say artificial instances of transference, on the ground of some real or supposed resemblance between the material and the mental objects. Thus, the sun is termed the king of day, and the moon the queen of night.

"An horn is the hieroglyphick of authority, power, and dignity, and in this metaphor is often used in Scripture."-Brown, "Vulgar Errors." Meta forms the two first syllables of metaphysics (in Greek, μETA TA QUIKа, pronounced met'-ta tar fu'-se-ka, after the physics or natural sciences). The force of the word will be learnt in these quotations :

:

"The one part which is physic (physics, relating to matter) inquireth and handleth the material and efficient causes; and the other, which is metaphysic (metaphysics, the plural is now generally used), handleth the formal and final causes."-Bacon, "Advancement of Learning."

"From this part of Aristotle's logic there is an easy transition to what has been called his metaphysics; a name unknown to the author himself, and given to his most abstract philosophical works by his editors, from an opinion that these books ought to be studied immediately after his physics, or treatises on natural philosophy."-Gillies, 'Analysis of Aristotle's Works."

Meta also enters into the Greek word metempsychosis (em, in, and yuxn, pronounced su'-ke, the soul), the passage of the soul from one body to another.

"The souls of usurers, after their death, Lucan affirms to be metem. psychosed, or translated into the bodies of asses, and there remain cer tain years, for poor men to take their pennyworth out of their bones." -Peacham.

EXERCISE.

1. Parse the following sentences :

July is a very hot month. In July the grass and flowers are burnt. Why do you not water your garden? The children go under the bushes. A bee is on the honeysuckle. The bee will carry the honey to the hive. Look at puss! She pricks up her ears. She smells the mice. Puss wants to get into the closet. The mice have nibbled the biscuits. February is a cold month. It snows. It freezes.

2. Form sentences having in them these words :Signification; prevent; incrustation; excommunicate; efflorescence; encamp; survey; office; entertainment; epitaph; equivoca tion; despot; forbid; pardon; hieroglyphics.

3. Write a theme on each of the following subjects:Armada. 1. Joseph and his brethren. 2. A May morning. 3. The Invincible 4. The Solar System. 5. The chief river in the neighbourhood where you live, and any objects of interest on or near its banks.

LESSONS IN PENMANSHIP.-XIX.

IN Copy-slips Nos. 67 and 68 the learner will see how the letters V, W, and b are joined to letters that precede and follow them, and in these he will also find examples of the method of bringing the final curve to the right, which terminates the letters that have just been named, in a downward direction, in order to carry it with greater facility into the line that forms the loop

WW v

No. 70. An inspection of these elementary strokes will show that the letter r is formed of the top-turn, with the addition of a fine hair-stroke brought upwards along the right-hand side of the thick down-stroke of the top-turn as far as the line cc, when it is carried out to the right, in a graceful curve, as far as the line a a. The pen is then brought downwards, and the letter is terminated by a curved or hooked stroke, resembling in a great measure a small bottom-turn. When the letter r is

a

of the letter e, which would be greatly curtailed in size and robbed of its proper proportions if the final curve of the v, b, or w that precedes it were carried to the right midway between the lines a a, cc, in the ordinary way, instead of being brought downwards as far as the line cc and then turned into the loop of the letter e.

The four remaining letters of the writing alphabet-namely, r, f, k, and z-each exhibit a peculiarity of form that is not to be found in any other letter. The elementary strokes which are combined to form the letter r are shown in Copy-slip No. 69, and the letter r itself in a complete form in Copy-slip

followed by e, the finishing turn, as in the case of the final curve terminating the letters V, W, and b, is made larger in order to carry it into the fine up-stroke commencing at cc, which forms the loop of the letter e.

An example of the letter r, in conjunction with letters preceding and following it, will be found in Copy-slip No. 71, in the word roller. The elementary looped stroke, turned at the top, which generally forms the upper part of the letter f, is given in Copy-slip No. 72. It resembles the loop-stroke, turned at the bottom, which enters into the composition of the letters j, g, and y, in a reversed position.