334, 342 Unit of Force-Forces ap- XXII. The Verb To be, etc. 197 XXIV. Conjugation of Verbs 210 XXXI. Inseparable Particles 282 XXXVII., XXXVIII. Reflec- To Graduate a Steelyard 344 Twisted Polygon - Forces Finding Centres of Gravity 219 Ellipsis The Dash (continued)— Diæresis-The Asterisk, ret, Breve, and Brace. 218 Correct Iuflection RECREATIVE NATURAL HIS- THE POPULAR EDUCATOR. INTRODUCTION. in the history of his country, and to place at the command of the student for the Civil Service or University Examinations all the branches of education necessary for his advancement, no effort will be found to have been wanting. Our ambition has been to place in every English Home an Educational Encyclopædia, invaluable as a manual of study and a work of reference, which, whilst simple, pro for the improvement and the advancement of its students. In the three great departments of knowledge which this Work embraces-History, Science, and Languages-the end of such instruction, viz., its practical application to the affairs of life, is herein kept steadily in view. Science is taught not merely as abstract truth or an interesting intellectual exercise, but as embodying in all its branches those principles, a knowledge of which will explain the various phenomena of the world, and enable us to avail ourselves more intelligently, and therefore more sucessfully, of all the varied material with which Nature has supplied us. AT no period in the history of our country has it been less necessary to offer an apology for reproducing a National Work on Education than at the present time. So keen is the competitive spirit of the age, that the advantage of knowledge in the struggle for advancement is apparent to all. The mighty power of steam applied to railways and vessels has developed national and international communication to a degree not dreamt of at the commence-gressive, and interesting in its style, should be powerful ment of the century. Telegraphy presents to our view the daily contemporaneous history of the world; and the Press, relieved from those shackles which impeded its action and fettered its influence, has become a powerful medium for the communication of thought between the leading minds of the age. In the political condition of our own country changes have been wrought, which render it a matter of the utmost importance that the recipients of power may be possessed of the knowledge to use that power aright. The necessity of Education, which was fiercely combated when this Work first saw the light, is now universally admitted, but the mode and the system still demand the gravest consideration. This truth was fully recognised by no one more than the late Earl of Derby, the illustrious chief of the Conservative party, and he was pleased to accept the dedication of this Work to himself. Gratifying as is this complimentary recognition of the services which the original edition of the POPULAR EDUCATOR has rendered in the promotion of National Education, we feel that the basis of our present claim upon the co-operation of all the friends of that great movement consists in this—that our system has been tested, its efficiency has been proved, whilst a sale of upwards of 800,000 copies has testified, on the part of those for whom it was designed, their appreciation of the Work and their estimate of its value. But more than twenty years have elapsed since the POPULAR EDUCATOR was first issued from the press, and during that period considerable advances have been made in many of the departments of knowledge. In succeeding editions we have therefore found it necessary to introduce many new subjects, and to re-model many of our old lessons, and no expense has been spared in making these changes as complete as possible. To amuse, to instruct, to elevate, has been our constant endeavour. To render the workman more perfect in his vocation, the soldier and sailor better fitted for the higher positions of his profession, the naturalist more conversant with the beauties of Nature, the politician further acquainted with the important events Instruction in Languages-whether living or dead— is herein so conveyed as to enable the student not only to understand a given set of books in any particular tongue, but to make him master of the language itself by gradual and easy, but yet real and tangible stages. The Historic Sketches, by means of which we would teach History, will, we hope, render that study no longer a mere record of battles, an obituary of kings, a mighty chaos of incident; but will illustrate how each nation has discharged its functions in the world's history-how each epoch has played its part in the drama of a nation's life. A reference to our list of contents will show that under various heads are included every branch of study which can possibly be useful in the varied walks of life. The great aim and object of this Work is to enable the people to educate themselves. We have only to ask them to realise the magnitude and grandeur of the work in which they will be engaged, if they determine to do so. Obstacles will be overcome by united resolution. Every difficulty surmounted will be additional strength for further victories. A good education is the best legacy we can leave to our children. It is the best investment we can make for ourselves. The educated man in every walk of life carries with him his own capital-a capital unaffected by monetary crises-an investment whose interest is not regulated by the success of speculationa legacy which none can dispute, and of which none can deprive him. LESSONS IN FRENCH.-I. IN commencing these Lessons in French, instead of beginning with a long chapter exclusively devoted to the pronunciation of words, and the variations which are caused in the sounds of vowels and consonants by changes in their relative position, we have thought it best to enter at once into the construction of the language, and endeavour, without unnecessary delay, in as plain a manner as possible, to make our readers familiar with its various idioms and peculiarities. The Section on French pronunciation will be divided into several portions, one of which will be given at the commencement of each lesson in French, until the subject is exhausted. PART I. SECTION I.-FRENCH PRONUNCIATION. 1. THE FRENCH ALPHABET. 1. A tolerable pronunciation of any spoken language may be acquired by imitating the sounds of that language, as uttered by a living teacher. But the reading and writing of any language cannot thus be learnt. The pupil must bring into requisition something else besides his imitative powers, if he would thoroughly comprehend any language. The alphabet of the language to be learnt must be exhibited and examined, and then mastered. 2. An alphabet is a collection of different characters called letters, each of which represents its own peculiar sound. These letters differ from each other in name, form, size, and sound. Used as vehicles of thought, they must not only be familiar to the eye, but their use, both singly and combined, must be understood. 3. Two objects are to be before the student whilst perusing these preliminary lessons on French pronunciation, namely:First. The acquisition of the correct pronunciation of the various sounds of the letters of the French alphabet. Second. To learn how to combine and use these sounds, in order to read the French language easily, intelligibly, profitably. The first example-ouai, is composed of two compound vowels, viz.: ou and ai. The second example-ouen, is also composed of two compound vowels, viz.: ou and eu. In the last example ouée, the final e is silent, and the three vowels are thus divided, viz.: ou and é. 13. THE VOWEL Y.-The vowel y is frequently found combined with other vowels, but in such combinations it is never used as a diphthong. Its use in combination is peculiar, and will be fully explained hereafter. 14. THE NASAL VOWEL SOUNDS.-There are certain sounds called nasal vowel sounds, produced by the combination of the vowels with the consonants m and n, namely: These sounds will be explained hereafter. certain sounds called nasal diphthongal sounds, produced by the combination of nasal vowel sounds with a vowel, not nasal, before them, namely:and 15. THE NASAL DIPHTHONGAL SOUNDS.-There are also 4. The first object will be accomplished by the aid of analogous English sounds; that is, every sound represented by a letter or combination of letters of the French alphabet, will be unfolded, analysed, and defined, as far as possible, by means of analogous sounds of a letter or combination of letters of the English alphabet. 5. The second object will be accomplished by learning a few brief and simple rules, illustrated and enforced by appropriate examples. 6. Diligent attention, patient labour, and a determination to succeed, will enable the learner to overcome every obstacle, and thus make him master of a language, not only exceedingly difficult for foreigners to acquire, but beautiful in itself, and co-existent with the triumphs of civilisation. 7. The student's attention is next directed to the French alphabet. While the English alphabet contains twenty-six letters, in the French alphabet there are only twenty-five. It has no letter which corresponds to the English w, though it is occasionally found in French books. It is used only in foreign words, and then pronounced like the English v. 8. The French alphabet is divided into vowels and consonants. 9. THE VOWELS.-The vowels are six in number, namely:— e i o a u y. They are thus called because, being united together, each Vowel loses its own simple sound, and helps to form another new sound. They form but one syllable, and are consequently pronounced by one emission of the voice. 12. THE DIPHTHONGS.-There are six diphthongs, namely: ia ie io ua ue ui. ian ien ion uan uin ouan ouin. La fille, the daughter, the girl. 2. Before a word commencing with a vowel or an h mute, the final e or a of the article le or la is cut off, and replaced by an apostrophe, leaving the article apparently the same for both genders [§ 13 (7)], as : L'aïeul(e) aïeul], the grandfather, 3. There are in French only two genders, the masculine and or inanimate object, belongs to one of these two genders. the feminine [§ 4]. Every noun, whether denoting an animate MASC. L'homme, the man. Le livre, the book. L'arbre, the tree. Le lion, the lion. FEM. La femme, the woman. La table, the table. La plume, the pen. La lionne, the lioness. 4. AVOIR, TO HAVE, IN THE PRESENT OF THE INDICATIVE. Affirmatively. SING. J'ai, I have. Tu as [§ 33 (1) (2)]Thou hast. Il a, Elle a, Ho has. She has. PLUR. Nous avons, Vous avez, Ils ont, m., Elles ont, f., We have. You have. They have. They have. References thus [§ 13 (2)] refer to Sections in Part II. of these Lessons (Vol. IV., p. 74), but by references in Roman numerals, thus, They are thus called because, though pronounced as one [Sect. I., 30] the learner is directed to Sections in Part I., the portion syllable, the sound of both vowels is distinctly heard. of our "Lessons in French" which we are now commencing. 5. The e of the pronoun je is elided, when that pronoun comes before a vowel or an h mute, and replaced by an apostrophe, as J'ai [J(e)ai], I have, as above [§ 146]. 3 4. The name of the material of which an object is composed always follows the name of the object; the two words being connected by the preposition de [§ 76 (11)], as : médecin. L'habit de drap, RÉSUMÉ OF 6. In interrogative sentences, when the third person singular of Le tailleur a l'habit de drap du a verb ends with a vowel, and is immediately followed by a pronoun, the letter t, called euphonic [Sect. I. 30], must be placed between the verb and the pronoun, and joined by two hyphens, as:— A-t-il? A-t-elle ? Has he? 1 Le père a la viande, vous avez lo café, et j'ai l'eau. L'homme a le pain, l'enfant a le sel, et nous avons le poivre. Has she? Livre, m., book. OB3.-Note and remember that the noun livre, book, is masculine, but the nouns livre, a pound (in weight), and livre, a piece of money equivalent to a franc, are feminine. To be translated into English. 1. Qui a le pain? 2. Le boulanger a le pain. 3. A-t-il la farine? 4. Oni, Monsieur, il a la farine. 5. Avons-nous la viande ? 6. Oui, Monsieur, vous avez la viande et le pain. 7. Le meunier a la farine. 8. Le boulanger a la farine et le blé. 9. Avons-nous le livre et la plume? 10. Oui, Mademoiselle, vous avez le livre et la plume. 11. Le boucher a la viande. 12. Le meunier a la viande et j'ai le café. vous l'eau et le sel? 14. Oui, Monsieur, nous avons l'eau, le 13. Avezsel, et l'avoine. 15. Avons-nous le thé ? 16. Non, Monsieur, la fille a le thé, le vinaigre, et le sel. 17. Ai-je le vin? 18. Non, Madame, vous avez seulement le vinaigre et la viande. 19. Avez-vous la table? 20. Oui, Madame, j'ai la table. EXERCISE 2. To be translated into French. 1. Have you the wheat? 2. Yes, Sir, I have the wheat. 3. Who has the meat? 4. The butcher has the meat and the salt. 5. Has he the oats? 6. No, Madam, the horse has the oats. 7. Have we the wheat? 8. You have the wheat and the flour. 9. Who has the salt? 10. I have the salt and the meat. 11. Have we the vinegar, the tea, and the coffee? Sir, the brother has the vinegar. 12. No, 13. Who has the horse? 14. The baker has the horse. 15. Have we the book and the pen? 16. No, Miss, the girl has the pen, and the miller has the book. 17. Have you the table, Sir ? 18. No, Sir, I have only the book. 19. Who has the table? 20. We have the table, the pen, and the book.... SECTION III.-THE ARTICLE (Continued). 1. The article le, with the preposition de preceding, must be contracted into du, when it comes before a word in the masculine singular, commencing with a consonant or an h aspirated [§ 13 (8) (9)], as :~ Vous avez la lettre de la sœur du boulanger. A-t-il le livre de la dame ? Argent, Chapeau, m., hat. Charpentier, m., carpenter. Cordonnier, m., shoemaker. Coton, m., cotton. The cloth coat. The silk dress. EXAMPLES. The tailor has the physician's cloth coat. You have the baker's sister's letter (the letter of the sister of the baker). Has he the lady's book? VOCABULARY. Couteau, m., knife. Médecin,m.,physician. EXERCISE 3. To be translated into English. 1. Avez-vous la montre d'or? 2. Oui, Madame, j'ai la montre d'or et le chapeau de soie. 3. Monsieur, avez-vous le livre du tailleur ? 4. Non, Monsieur, j'ai le livre du médecin. 5. Ont-ils le pain du boulanger? 6. Ils ont le pain du boulanger et la farine du meunier. 7. Avez-vous le porte-crayon d'argent? 8. Oui, Monsieur, nous avons le porte-crayon d'argent. 9. Avons-nous l'avoine du cheval? 10. Vous avez l'avoine et le foin du cheval. 11. Qui a l'habit de drap du charpentier? 12. Le cordonnier a le chapeau de soie du tail14. Avez-vous la table de bois? leur. 13. Le tailleur a le soulier de cuir du cordonnier. 15. Oui, Monsieur, j'ai la table de bois du charpentier. 16. Ont-ils le couteau d'argent? 17. Ils ont le couteau d'argent. 18. Le frère du médecin a la montre d'argent. 19. La sœur du cordonnier a la robe de le soulier de satin. 22. Avons-nous le bas de laine? soie. 20. A-t-elle le soulier de cuir? 21. Non, Madame, elle a 23. Non, Monsieur, vous avez le bas de soie du tailleur. 24. Qui a le bas le soulier de satin de la sœur du boulanger. de coton? 25. Le médecin a le bas de coton. 26. La dame a EXERCISE 4. To be translated into French. 1. Have you the tailor's book? 2. No, Sir, I have the physician's watch. 3. Who has the gold watch? 4. The lady the tailor's shoe? has the gold watch and the silver pencil-case. 5. Have you 6. I have the tailor's cloth shoe. 7. Have we the wooden table? 8. Yes, Sir, you have the wooden table. 9. Have they the silver knife? 10. They have the silver knife. 11. The lady has the silver knife and the gold pencil-case. the satin dress. 12. Has she the satin dress? 13. The physician's sister has 14. Who has the wood? 15. The carpenter's brother has the wood. 16. Have you the woollen stockings? baker's bread? 17. No, Sir, I have the cotton stockings. 18. Who has the 19. We have the baker's bread and the miller's flour. 20. Have we the horse's hay ? 21. You have the horse's oats. 22. Have we the tailor's silk hat? Sir, you have the tailor's silk hat and the shoemaker's leather 23. Yes, shoe. 24. Have you the cloth shoe of the physician's sister? 25. No, Madam, I have the lady's silk dress. LESSONS IN GEOGRAPHY.-I. EARLY NOTIONS; THE GEOGRAPHY OF THE SCRIPTURES. THE term Geography is derived from two Greek words, yn, the earth, and ypapn, a description (pronounced ghee and grá-phe), and simply means a description of the earth's surface; it is thereoutline and extent, the political division and constitution, the fore rightly applied to that science which treats of the natural civil and social condition, and the industrial wealth and population of the various countries, kingdoms, and states which have appeared, or which now exist on the face of the globe. Geogra phy includes also the description of the form of the earth, its motions, its place in the solar system, the great circles supposed to be drawn on its surface, and its position in the heavens by which it is surrounded on all sides; the diversified nature of its surface, as seen in its mountains, valleys, plains, rivers, seas, and oceans, and in the constitution and phenomena of the atmosphere by which it is enveloped, as in a swaddling band; and the different races of animals, including man, and the various kinds of vegetable and mineral productions which are distributed over its surface. It will be sufficient for our purpose, in this first lesson, to state generally that the form or shape of the earth is that of a globe or ball, and that the height of the highest mountains on its surface is so small in comparison with the size of the earth, and interfere so little with its rotundity, or roundness, that this height has about the same proportion to the diameter of the earth, which the thickness of common writing-paper has to the diameter of a twelve-inch terrestrial globe. The ancients had possessing all those antiquated notions in science, particularly in geography and astronomy, which the uninstructed tribes of Asia, Australasia, and Polynesia possess at the present day. "The Hebrews," says an eminent writer, "obviously never attempted to form any scientific theory respecting the structure of the earth. The natural impression which represents it as a flat surface, with the heaven as a firmament or curtain spread over it, is found to be universally prevalent. Beneath was conceived to be a deep pit, the abode of darkness and the shadow of death. In one place we find the grand image of the earth being hung upon nothing; but elsewhere the pillars of the earth are repeatedly mentioned; and sometimes the pillars of heaven. In short, it is evident that every writer caught the idea impressed on his senses and imagination by the view of these grand objects, without endeavouring to arrange them into any regular system." We have quoted this passage as 8 specimen of the loose style of writing and thinking regarding no such knowledge of the earth as we now possess; and though some of the most intellectual of the philosophers of Greece, such As the famous Pythagoras, are supposed to have reached the notion of its globular form, it was buried under a cloud of errors and extravagances. To the most extended view which the human eye can take of any part of the surface of the earth, even from the highest eminence found on that surface, it appears to be one vast and illimitable plain, diversified by hill and dale, land and water, mountain and valley. The heavens appear to be a luminous dome above the head of the observer, bespangled with stars at night, and they seem to rest on the surface of the earth at an immense and immeasurable distance. He feels as if he would be afraid to travel so far, either on land or sea, as to reach the limit which he supposes must ultimately be found to this surface, lest he fall over into an interminable abyss; and he supposes that the phenomena of the heavens are confined to the upper and visible concave which he beholds, while his imagination dooms all beneath his feet to death and everlasting oblivion. Such were the limited notions which prevailed at an early period in the history of the world; and it is one great proof of the antiquity and authenticity of the sacred Scriptures, that they describe men as they really were in ancient times, and as the science of the sacred Scriptures. The style of these writings, in the places above referred to, is highly poetical; and who, we would ask, expects to find didactic theories in a poem ? The poet seizes the phenomena of nature as they appear to the eye, and enlarges, magnifies, or arranges them at pleasure; he is not tied to rules, nor confined to the language of the schools. To do so, would destroy his poetry, and reduce his imagination to an automaton. The book of Job, in which these grand expressions are found, is the oldest book in the world. It was written long before the time of Moses; and though found in the Hebrew language, it was evidently not written by a Hebrew. It is curious, however, that the writer of this book should have lighted upon such a striking fact, as that the earth hangs upon nothing! Had this been found in a Chinese or a Hindoo book, possessing such claims to antiquity as the Hebrew book, it would have been lauded to the skies as a proof of superior knowledge, and would have been held as an infallible proof that the Chinese or the Hindoos, ages ago, were actually acquainted with the facts of modern science. The same writer looks to Phoenicia for the origin of geographical knowledge; and there can be no doubt that, being some of the earliest merchants and traders both by sea and land, the Phoenicians must have been among the first nations of the world |
