the wherefore will be the better educated man of the two, and his information, though not so extensive as the other, will be found in every way to be more serviceable to himself and to those who employ him. The latter can boast of possessing a few coins of the true metal; the larger stock of the former is merely electro-plate. After the above remarks, we hope our pupils will be anxious to accompany us into a little inquiry respecting the laws which regulate the disposition of shadows as they occur under various circumstances. The extent of the shadow is ruled by the position of the source of light. On any

Figs. 76, 77, and 78 are intended to show the position of the shadow of an object in three cases. In Fig. 76, the sur is parallel with our position, or with the picture plane, and is on our right hand, casting the shadow of the post at ab, which is parallel with the horizontal line and picture plane. In Fig. 77, when the sun is in front of the picture, or behind us, the shadow is cast in a retiring position. In Fig. 78, when the sun is behind the picture or before us, the shadow is cast in advance of the object, or, in other words, approaches us. We intend to give only a single geometrical example,

day at noon, when the sun is high in the heavens, the shadows of our own figures are shorter than in the morning or evening, when the sun is lower: this, then, suggests the consideration, how are we to regulate or decide upon the extent of the shadow of an object in a picture according to the sun's inclination. This may be said to be the statement of the question relating to all shadows under whatever conditions they may be found. We propose now to take it up with reference to a few cases only, as it will be more thoroughly answered in the lessons on Geometrical Perspective. Sometimes the position of the sun may be

Fig. 78.

and that a very simple one, of the first of these positions, and leave the pupil at present to take for granted much that might be said, not only on this, but on the others also, as they belong more especially to geometrical perspective. The position we have chosen is the parallel position, when the sun's rays are in the picture. Let A, B (Fig. 79) represent two walls, forming a right angle, one of which, A, is parallel to the picture plane, and the other, B, at a right angle, or perpendicular with the picture plane; there is also a doorway in the wall B. Let the sun's rays be supposed to have an inclination of 45°. The

behind us, at other times before us, and again it may be, as it is technically termed, "in the picture;" that is, the sun is either on eur right hand or on our left, meaning by that neither before us, nor behind us: consequently the rays are parallel with the picture. Sometimes the source of light is a lamp or candle, and although the rules for constructing the shadows under this light are very much the same as those we employ for shadows resulting from the effects of sunlight, yet there is this characteristic difference: the sun's rays are always considered to be parallel on account of its remote distance from the earth, whilst the light from a lamp or candle radiates above, below, and on all sides, and consequently the rays are not parallel.

angle a b c (45°) may be made anywhere on the ground line. as it is only so placed for the purpose of drawing the dotted lines, d e, fg, etc., parallel to a b, to ensure the given inclination of the sun's rays, by which the extent of the shadows are determined. Our purpose then in introducing this problem is to prove that the edges of the shadows of objects in a horizontal position have the same vanishing point as the lines of the object itself have when in parallel perspective. It will be seen that the shadow, g h, of the upper edge of the wall, B, as well as the wall itself, are directed towards the point of sight, also the shadow of the top of the doorway, and e i, of the end of the wall A, are subject to the same rule. We should like to go

further into this very interesting inquiry, but refrain, from a desire not to present too many difficulties at present. Fig. 80 is an example of the rule set forth by Fig. 79. It will be observed that the dotted lines representing the sun's inclination, determine the extent of the cast shadow of the buildings on the ground; and according to the heights of the buildings, so is the extent of their shadows: the shadow of the chimney is on the Let us again roof, which being above the eye cannot be seen. remind the pupil that the tone of the cast shadow on the ground is darker than the broad shadow on the walls. Observe when the shadow of a perpendicular object is cast horizontally on the ground, and is found to be equal in length to the height of that object, then the inclination of the sun's rays is at an angle of 45°. Therefore, to determine the extent of a shadow caused by the sun's inclination at 45°, we have simply to make the object and its shadow of the same length; should the sun's rays be at any other angle, the method, as shown in the problem Fig. 79, of first constructing the angle, must be adopted. The dotted horizontal retiring lines from the shadows in Fig. 77 and Fig. 78, meet on the H L, or line of sight, at the vanishing point of the sun's direction; whilst the inclined dotted lines from the top of the post to the extremity of the shadow, are drawn from the vanishing point of the sun's elevation, in one case above, in the other below, the line of sight. We merely mention this, and purposely decline giving any further rules at present for the construction of shadows, asking the pupil patiently to wait until he is a little more advanced, for fuller and more direct information, with a promise on our part that he shall not be left without proof and further instruction upon these interesting points. In the case of Fig. 81, the sun is behind us to the left, and therefore in front of the picture; cast shadows are thrown upon the projecting walls and on the ground: this hint will remind the pupil of their difference of tone. In working a shadow cast on the ground, we recommend the practice of drawing the lines of the shadow (that is, the shading) horizontally, so that the retiring shadows will then appear horizontal on a like surface: if

the lines of the work were drawn in the direction of the vanishing point to which the shadow retires, the shadow would then appear to be inclined to the horizon, similar to the roof of a house, or to a board placed upon an edge and leaning against a wall. Cast shadows on perpendicular planes, such as upright walls, should be worked perpendicularly. As a general rule, we may decide that the working of a shadow should always be with especial reference to the position or inclination of the object upon which it is cast, whether it be perpendicular, horizontal, or inclined, so that the lines of the shading, though representing the shadow, should also represent the character of the ground, object, or plane upon which the shadow is cast.

LESSONS IN LATIN.-XI.

SUBSTANTIVES of the fourth declension have in the nominative two case-endings, one in us, the other in u. The nouns which end in us are for the most part masculine; those which end in u are neuter. The u belongs to the stem. With this u are blended the case-endings of the genitive and ablative singular, and the nominative and accusative plural; thus u and is become Ms in the genitive singular; u and e become u in the ablative singular; u and es become is in the nominative and accusative plural. The fourth conjugation, then, is only a contracted form of the third; contracted, I say, that is shortened, as when u and s are melted together to form us, the case-ending of the genitive singular.

lake or inland sea; quercus, f., an oak; specus, m., a cave or grotto; tribus, f., a tribe; pecu, n., cattle; veru, n., a spit.

As u belongs to the stem, ubus is the regular form in the dative and ablative plural; but the u has been set aside by the connecting vowel i, as in fruct-i-bus. EXAMPLE.-Fructus, m., fruit; cornu, n., a horn.

Plural. fructus, fruits.

Singular. cornů, a horn.

Plural.

oornǎă, horns.

Cases. Singular. N. fructus, fruit. G. fructus, of fruit. fructuum, of fruits cornus, of a horn. cornutim, of horns D. fructui, to fruit. fructibus, to fruits. cornu, to a horn. cornibus, to horns Ac.fructum, fruit. fructus, fruits. cornua, horns. cornuă, O horns!

cornu, a horn. V. fructus, O fruit! fructus, O fruits! cornu, O horn! Ab.fructů, by fruit. fructibus, by fruits cornů, by a horn. corníbás, by horns declension: thus, from the second, it has the ablative singular Domus, f., a house, partakes of the second as well as the fourth in o, as domo, and one form of the genitive plural in orum, as domorum; from the fourth declension, it has most of its other

cases.

Cases.

It is declined thus:

Singular.

Domus, ūs, f., a house.

EXERCISE 35.-ENGLISH-LATIN.

1. Lusus gratus est pueris. 2. Varia sunt genera lusús. 3. Pueri libenter indulgent lusui. 4. Nonne pueris gratus est lusus ? 5. Lusus est mihi gratus. 6. Tibi est lusus vehementer gratus. 7. Viri graves evitant lusus pueriles. 8. O lusus, quam suaviter animos puerorum delectas! 9. Reges non delectantur lusu puerili. 10. Sensus sunt acres. 11. Acres mihi sunt sensus. 13. 12. Vis sensuum est magna.

Estne sensuum vis magna. 14. Vir fortis non succumbit sensibus doleris. 15. Acres sensus habent bestiæ. 16. O sensus, quantas voluptates hominibus paratis! 17. Animalia prædita sunt sensibus.

EXERCISE 36.-ENGLISH-LATIN.

1. The feeling of pain is bitter. 2. Is not the feeling of pain bitter to thee? 3. The feeling of pain is bitter to all men and to all animals. 4. The power of grief is great. 5. The sage is not overcome by the power of the senses. 6. A brave (fortis) man yields not to grief. 7. 8. O grief, how dost Do brave men yield to the power of the senses? thou overcome the minds of men! 9. Boys willingly yield to play. 10. (There) are many kinds of play. 11. Plays (games) of all kinds are pleasant to boys and girls. 12. Boyish plays delight not men. Men are not delighted by boyish plays. 14. Boys and men yield to pleasure. 15. How greatly is grief avoided by children. 16. Boys delight in bows and arrows. 17. Girls delight in needles.

13.

There are no adjectives which follow the fourth declension, as there are none which follow the fifth declension. Adjectives follow exclusively the first, the second, and the third declensions. Yet nouns of the fourth and of the fifth declensions are sometimes united with adjectives. In declining nouns and adjectives so united, you must take care to preserve the proper forms of both, and not allow the one to influence the other. To aid you in making the necessary distinctions, I supply instances for practice.

NOUNS AND ADJECTIVES OF VARIOUS DECLENSIONS.

EXAMPLE.-Maturus fructus, m., ripe fruit; frequens cœtus,

EXERCISE 38.-ENGLISH-LATIN.

1. The man's knee is strong. 2. Strong knees have vigour. 3. Are thy knees strong? 4. The woods resound with the horrible sound of thunder. 5. The sound of thunder greatly moves the animals. 6. Thunder is feared by strong beasts. 7. I have weak knees. 8. Has your father weak knees? 9. No, my father has strong knees. 10. I am greatly moved by much lightning. 11. The roaring of thunder greatly moves the suppliants. 12. The suppliant points out the beautiful house.

Summus, highest; medius, middle; imus, lowest; reliquus, remaining; ultimus, extremus, last, etc. These adjectives agree in number, case, and gender with their nouns, though in English they appear to have the force of nouns, and consequently to require the construction of nouns. Thus, the Latins say, summus mons, that is, the highest mountain; meaning, the top of the mountain, the highest part of the mountain, the mountain, that is, where it is highest. forms for practice.

:-

Feminine: these nouns in us: tribus, acus, porticus. Domus, nurus, socrus, anus: idus, quercus, ficus, manus.

KEY TO EXERCISES IN LESSONS IN LATIN.-XI.
EXERCISE 33.-LATIN-ENGLISH.

1. A soldier ought to fight with a brave mind. 2. Men have mortal bodies, immortal minds. 3. Have not men mortal bodies? 4. I am delighted with the sweet voice of birds. 5. Art thou delighted with the sweet voice of birds ? 6. Boys should apply to learning with an eager mind. 7. Why, O boys, do you not apply to knowledge with all earnest mind? 8. The praise of scholars consists in good characters and severe industry. 9. With earnest industry my father applies to literature, 10. Piety is the basis of all the virtues. 11. Thy virtues, O mother, delight me. 12. Brave men are not overcome by severe pains. 13. We do not yield to daring enemies. 14. Every voice (sound) is well heard by thy mother. 15. Thy voices (words), O sister, are sweet to me.

EXERCISE 34.-ENGLISH-LATIN.

2. Audax agmen non facile vincitur. 3. Alacri animo in literas incumbit meus filius. 4. Sorores tume amantne literas ? 5. Avium vocibus delectantur. 6. Aves

hostium suaves habent voces. 7. Bene in literas incumbunt discipuli mei. 8. A Julio Cæsare vincitur audax agmen, 9. Hominum corpora mortalia sunt, immortales animi. 10. Matris pietas filium delectat. 11. Filia patris virtute delectatur. 12. Industrià et bonis moribus puerorum constat virtus. 13. Matris meæ epistola ab omnibus auditur.

ESSAYS ON LIFE AND DUTY.—III. .

TRUTH.

THE love of truth is one of the main elements in all honourable characters. To preserve a keen and delicate edge of feeling in the moral sense in this respect is to conserve the happiness as well as the excellency of character. Where there is little selfrespect there can be little real blessedness, and the consciousness of habitual untruthfulness cannot co-exist with any moral satisfaction in ourselves. To b true, as it ranks us amongst the noblest, so it ranks us with t. happiest of men. To be false is not only to be despised, but to despise ourselves. Scarcely any psychologists will doubt the existence in all men of that moral sense which is able to discern the true when presented to it, nor will their investigations have been carried on without the discerning of another faculty closely connected with it, and that is a sensation of pleasure in the perception of it. Truth is meant to meet not only the eye which perceives, but the instinct which admires and approves. In other words, truth meets not only a mental perceptivity in us, but has a moral affinity with us.

In all human relationships we see how valuable is the possession of a love of truth, and how difficult it is to preserve at all times a strict adherence to its behests.

Unquestionably it is our duty always to be obedient to the truth without dread of consequences. Inasmuch as likes and dislikes may meet us in the way, we shall often have to conquer ourselves. Passion and prejudice may stand on one side, and truth on the other, and the solicitations of the former may be so strong as to make it very hard work to comply with the commands of the latter. Moreover, to act according to truth brings with it sometimes disadvantage-loss, for instance, of pecuniary profit, or of flattering reputation; but in the end these gains if secured would be counterbalanced by the after-loss of our character, and we should have risked and ruined that upon which our ultimate success as well as our ultimate happiness alike depend.

Lying is of many kinds and degrees, but all lies are hateful and injurious. There is the suppressio veri, or the hiding of truth, the keeping back that which, if the jury knew it, or if our neighbour knew it, would altogether alter the value of the bargain and the complexion of the whole matter; consequently, though in such cases we remain silent, we may yet all the time be denying the truth by the reservation which keeps back that which is essential to its claims. There is also the speaking falsely for the sake of supposed good ends, a doctrine which has been of old defended by some casuists, but which has not one word to be said in its favour, inasmuch as it leaves open to every man's judgment the decision of what in the end will be best; a decision which, apart from all other considerations, is only too likely to fall in with his own selfish desires and inclinations. There is no more immoral doctrine than this, as it cuts at the very root of an immutable morality. There is also one more form of falsehood which demands exposure, and that is the acted untruth, where the lips indeed are silent, but where the look and the manner give assent to the falsehood. We must ever remember that there is a speech of the glance and the gesture as well as of the lips and the voice, and that it is as base to deceive with the one as with the other.

duals. Whatever material gains may be secured by fraud and falsehood, the dishonour which is an inseparable part of the harvest is more than a counterbalance for all the success. Falsehood brings with it in many ways its own punishment. It has been well said that "Liars should have good memories"—so sure are they in after days to speak accidentally the truth, and thus not only to reveal the real fact, but also to uncover themselves to the shame and derision of mankind.

Fidelity to truth is one of those virtues which cannot suddenly be either learned or practised. Savage and uncivilised people, who have been habituated to falsehood, take many long years of moral education before they lose the lying habits of their nature. It must therefore commend itself to us as one of the first duties of life to inculcate the love and admiration of truth upon the young, that they may be early drilled in its exercise, and accustomed to its yoke. In the end it is easy, but in the beginning it is hard enough to fulfil the injunction, "Lie not at all."

All pretences and shams are actual untruths; but it is impossible in this article to follow into fullest details all the ramifica tions of falsehood. Enough has been said to show that there are many forms of falsehood, and not one of them even allowable or excusable.

Truth is as beautiful as it is powerful, and constitutes one of the richest adornments, as it is indeed one of the strongest bulwarks of character.

Cela se fait ainsi,

That is seen every day-literally,
That sees itself every day.
That merchandise is easily sold.
That merchandise sells itself easily.
That is done thus.
That does itself so.

Do you walk much every day!

I ride on horseback and in a carriage. 7. CONJUGATION OF THE PRESENT OF THE INDICATIVE

OF THE REFLECTIVE VErbs.

Fidelity to truth has much to do with the stability and prosperity of nations. The just payment of bonds, the righteous adjustment of claims, and the earnest adhesion to a course of conduct marked by persistent rectitude, constitute one of the surest guarantees of progress. Empires suffer most severely from all fraudulent breaches of trust towards others in the great community of nations. That which is true of peoples is true of indivi

or do. Sing.

walk or ride. Sing.

down. Sing.

Je me promène, I take Je m'assieds, I sit down a walk or ride. or am sitting down, Tu te promènes [§ 49]. Tu t'assieds. Il se promène.

Plur.

Nous nous promenons. Vous vous promenez. Ils se promènent.

Il s'assied.

Plur. Nous nous asseyons. Vous vous asseyez. Ils s'asseient.