sentence, as Does not Alfred read? We put these four forms of other qualifications might be stated; but here, at least, instead a proposition together. FORMS OF A PROPOSITION. 1 Affirmative. 2. Negative. 3. Interrogative. 4. Interrogative Negative, Alfred reads. Alfred does not read. Does Alfred read? of entering into them, it will be better to put the statement> in its most general form, a form in which it will embrace all particular cases, and render qualification unnecessary. I say, then, that in every sentence there must be a subject and a verb. I have thus set before you a new term. That term I must explain. Subject is a Latin word, and denotes that which You thus see an example of the ease and extent with which receives, that which lies under, is liable or exposed to; from the original form may be changed and multiplied. The pro- sub, under, and jacio, I throw, I place; in the passive, I bie. position, Alfred reads, is a simple proposition. Propositions are Accordingly, the subject of a proposition is that to which the either simple or compound. Compound propositions are made action declared in the verb is ascribed. Hence, the subject of a up of two or more simple propositions. Of compound propo- proposition is the agent, the actor, the doer. The subject of a sitions I shall speak in detail hereafter. Here only a few words proposition answers to the question who? or what? as, who may be allowed, in order to illustrate what is meant by a simple reads? Answer: Alfred reads. The term subject is used with proposition. If I were to say, When Alfred reads, he is listened special reference to the corresponding term, predicate. The to, I should employ a compound proposition. In these words predicate of a proposition is that which is attributed to the there are two statements, and consequently two sentences. subject. What is attributed in our model sentence? This, These two statements are, Alfred reads, and Alfred is listened to. namely, that Alfred reads. 'Reads," then, is here the prediThe two statements, united by the term when, constitute a com-cate, or that which is ascribed to, or asserted of Alfred. Henoe pound sentence. In one form, at least, a compound proposition you see the propriety of the term subject, since Alfred is subject may easily be mistaken for a simple proposition; namely, in to the averment that he reads. Now, in the grammatical conthis-Alfred reads and writes. Here, in reality, we have a com- struction of the sentence, it matters not whether you say Alfred pound sentence, for, when analysed, these words are equivalent reads, or he reads. In both cases you have a subject and verb, to these two statements-Alfred reads, and Alfred writes. There or predicate; and consequently you have a complete enunciation being in the sentence these two statements, the proposition is of thought, or a perfect sentence. compound. The sentence thus analysed and explained may be set forth in this form : Let us now consider the two words in their own individual character-Alfred reads. The first obviously represents a person, the second as clearly represents an act. Now, in grammar, words which represent persons and things are called nouns ; and words which represent acts are called verbs. Noun is a Latin term, and signifies name; hence you see the noun is the name of any person or thing; and were we as wise as were the Latins, we should not employ a foreign word, but call nouns simply names. Thus Alfred is the name of a person. Book, also, is a name; so is house; so is pen, so is paper; these are each the name or vocal sign by which Englishmen distinguish and agree to call these objects severally. Nor is there any mystery in the term verb. Here, too, we have a Latin term which signifies simply word. With the Latins the verb was the word; that is, the chief word in a sentence. By us the verb might be termed the word. Had English grammarians employed as their scientific terms words of Saxon origin, the study of English grammar would have been very easy. We shall endeavour to simplify it by translating the Latin terms, unhappily now become indispensable, into their English equivalents. That the verb is the word, the chief word of a sentence, you may learn by reflecting on the proposition, Alfred reads. It is reads, you see, that forms the very essence of the statement. Reads, too, distinguishes this statement from other statements, as Alfred nins, Alfred sings. Now let the reader look back on the several instances of propositions I have given, and endeavour to ascertain what is the quality in which they all agree. They have a common quality. That quality is averment. They all aver or declare something: This they do by means of their verbs. Accordingly, averment is the essential quality of the verb. Every verb is a word which makes an averment. Here, then, we learn that the noun names, and the verb avers. By these tokens may all nouns and all verbs be known. Whatever names is a noun; whatever avers is a verb. Chair is a noun, because it is the name of an object; stands is a verb, because it avers or declares something of chair; and the union of the noun and the verb, as chair stands, forms a proposition. Sentences, then, in their simplest form consist of a noun and a verb. A noun and a verb are indispensable. Whatever more you may have, you cannot have anything less than a noun and a verb in a sentence or proposition. As a substitute for the noun you may have a pronoun. Pronoun, again, is a word of Latin origin, signifying a word which stands instead of a noun. Thus we may put the pronoun he instead of Alfred; e.g. (these are the initials of two Latin words, meaning exempli gratiâ, for example): Alfred reads, where he holds the place of Alfred. We must accordingly qualify our statement, and say that sentences, in their simplest form, consist of a verb and a noun or pronoun. One or two Subject. Predicate. As the subject undergoes a change by passing, when necessary, into he, so may the predicate be modified. Instead of a predicate in one word, you may have a predicate in two words, by substituting a verb and an adjective; as Alfred is good. the meaning of adjective? Adjective in Latin signifies that we call also attributes. The attributes of a body are its qualities. Subject. is Attribute. you observe that reads and is good hold the same place and perform the same function in the two propositions. They in each case form the predicate of the sentence. The predicate is that which is predicated, declared, or averred of the subject of a proposition. In the former instance, reads is that which is averred; in the latter, is good is that which is averred. Mark that neither is nor good alone forms the predicate, for what is asserted is not that Alfred is-that is, exists-but that he is good. Accordingly, the predicate here consists of two words-namely, is good; but in the former example it consists of merely one word-—that is, reads. Of these two words, good, we have seen, is the attribute. It remains to state that the word is forms what is called the copula, a Latin term which may here be rendered By ordinary grammarians what we have termed the subject is called the nominative case. The employment of such a term is objectionable, for it is incorrect by not being sufficiently comprehensive. Take, for instance, the proposition, To ride is healthful. To ride is the subject of the proposition, and the subject, therefore, to the verb is. But is to ride a nominative case? Ask the grammarians, and they will tell you that it is the infinitive mood of the verb ride. If an infinitive mood, it is not a nominative case. Cases pertain to nouns, moods to verbs. But here we meet with an instance of the complexity and obscurity that have been brought into English grammar by attachment to Latin forms. Our nouns in their actual condition have but one case, the genitive; or, if the nominative be allowed to be a case, then two cases are the utmost that our nouns can be said to have. Why should more be assigned to them? It may be doubted, indeed, whether what is called the nominative can be properly termed a case, for it differs from the Latin nominative, which is formed from a stem common to all the cases through which the noun passes; whereas in English the nominative is the stem itself. However this may be in English, nouns now possess no more than two cases. This fact is in no way affected by the allegation that the Anglo-Saxon, the mother of the English, has several cases. It is with the daughter, not with the mother, that we are here concerned. COPY-SLIP NO. 5. THE LETTER 1. it COPY-SLIP NO. 6.—COMBINATION of the letters u, i. COPY-SLIP NO. 7.-COMBINATION OF THE LETTERS i, t. LESSONS IN PENMANSHIP.-III. We now place before our readers the letter 1, the last of the four letters that are formed either by the simple bottom-turn itself, or by some slight modification of it. Proceeding by a regular system of gradation, the self-teacher has been led first to make the bottom-turn within the horizontal lines that contain, as we stated in our last lesson, what may be termed the body of any letter that has a head, loop, or tail extending above or below these lines; and then, after making the simple bottomturn, he was shown how to turn this stroke into the letter i by placing a dot above it, to form the letter u by the combination of two bottom turns, and to make the letter t by beginning the thick down-stroke a little above the upper horizontal line, and crossing it just above the same line by a fine hair-stroke. He must now proceed to make the letter 1, beginning the downstroke at the line e e, which is placed at a distance above the line a a nearly equal to the distance between the lines a a, b b. The chief difficulty that the learner has to encounter in making the letter 1 arises from the length of the down-stroke, which obliges him to bring his pen downwards in the same straight line for a distance nearly half as long again as the letter t. At first his hand will shake, and, as it is manifestly much easier to make a short stroke than a long one, his early attempts at making the letter 1 will not be quite so straight and even, perhaps, as his copies of the shorter letters arising out of the bottom-turn. His success, however, greater or less, as it may be, in making this letter will afford an excellent test of his progress, and show him whether or not he be holding his pen in the proper way and sitting in the proper position. If he find no difficulty in repeating the letter 1 several times, and can do it with ease, making a straight and well-formed stroke with an equal pressure of the pen from top to bottom until it begins to narrow, he may be sure that his position is correct, and that he is holding his pen properly; but if, on the other hand, he find, after a few trials, that the down-strokes of his letters are uneven and crooked, owing to the shaking of his hand, and he feel pain in the ball of the thumb and the thick muscles on the opposite side of the palm of the hand, he may be sure that his position and the way in which he holds his pen is stiff, constrained, and unnatural, and requires amendment. To effect this, he must once more turn to the directions given for holding the pen, etc., in our first lesson in Penmanship, and carefully regulating the position of his hand and body by these instructions, he will soon discover the points in which he is at fault, and gradually acquire greater ease and freedom in writing. After accomplishing the letter 1, the learner may proceed to combinations of the letters that he has already made singly, and for this purpose we have furnished him with copy-slips, showing combinations of the letters u, i and i, t. Let him copy these and all the examples that we shall give him in future lessons again and again, remembering that in no branch of learning is constant practice more necessary, especially to the self-teacher, than in Penmanship. EXERCISE 3. Aufgabe 3. Jachen, Berlin, Cöln, Dresden, Ems, Frankfurt, Gotha, Hamburg, Janspruck, Jena, Königsberg, Leipzig, Mainz, Nürnberg, Befth, Quebeck, Rastatt, Trier, Ulm, Vaduz, Wien, Kanton, Opern, Zürich Frau, theurer Freund, ist alle Doch grün des Lebens goldner A B L I C F G Gr. P n m Exercise 3. Aufgabe 3. Aachen, Berlin, Lölu. Drekden- Grau, theurer Freundist alle Theorie- SECTION IV.-THE ARTICLE AND THE VERB. The English Letters. ABCDEFGHIJK LMNOPQRSTU VWXYZ ST. abcdefghijklmn opqrstuvwxyz. In German the definite Article has, in the Nominative singular, Rovf) is masculine; in French (la tête) it is feminine; and in Der Brauer hat Wein, Sie haben Kaffee, und ich habe Wasser. Das Pferd hat Heu, das Kind hat Unt, and. Was? what? Waffer, n. water. Wein, m. wine. Wer? who? The brewer has wine, you have coffee, and I have water. Mehl, oder das Brod? 14. Er hat das Mehl. 15. Hat der Bäcker den Wein, oder das Wasser? 16. Er hat das Wasser. 17. Lieben Sie den Bauer? 18. Nein, ich liebe den Lehrer. 19. Haben Sie Fleisch, oder Wein ? 20. Ich habe das Fleisch. 21. Haben Sie das Brod, oder den Zucker? 22. Ich habe das Brod. 23. Hat der Vater das Buch, oder den Kamm? 24. Er hat das Buch. LESSONS IN LATIN.-II. SECTION II.-PRELIMINARY INSTRUCTIONS IN THE VERBS. The horse has hay, the child has IN regard to the exercises which I am about to give, you should bread, and the girl has tea. Brod, und das Märchen hat Thee. EXERCISE 4. 1. Wer hat Brod? 2. Der Bäcker hat Brod. 3. Hat der Bäcker Mehl? 4. Ja, er hat auch Mehl. 5. Was hat der Müller? 6. Der Müller hat Mehl und Korn. 7. Wer hat Fleisch? 8. Der Fleischer hat Fleisch. 9. Haben Sie Bier? 10. Nein, der Brauer hat Bier. 11. Haben Sie Wein? 12. Nein, ich habe Kaffee. 13. Was hat das Mad chen? 14. Das Märchen hat Thee. 15. Hat der Brauer Korn? 16. Nein, er hat nur Bier und Wein. 17. Was hat das Kind? 18. G hat Wasser. 19. Hat es auch Brod? 20. Ja, es hat Brod und auch Fleisch. All German verbs are conjugated interrogatively, in the present and imperfect tenses, like have and be in English; that is, by placing the verb before its subject, without an auxiliary: Haben Sie das Buch? Have you the book? Wohnt er hier? Hatte er den Brief? War er hier? Read you the book? (Do you read the book?) Is he here? Resided he here? (Did he reside here ?) CONJUGATION OF THE PRESENT TENSE SINGULAR OF lieben. Assertively. Interrogatively. Ich liebe, I love ; Sie lieben, you love; Er liebt, he loves; DEFINITE ARTICLE MASCULINE AND NEUTER IN THE NOMINA liebe ich? love I? (Do I love ?) lieben Sie? love you? (Do you love?) loves he? (Does he love?) liebt er? first learn the vocabulary by heart. If yours is a mechanical trade, you may repeat the words over again and again while engaged in labour. Or you may make the words your own while walking to and from your employment. Among my personal friends is a gentleman who acquired the greater part of the words of the French language, while rising and dressing in the morning. Thousands of words have I myself learnt while walking for recreation. Having thoroughly mastered the vocabulary, take a slate and write down the Latin into English; then write the English into Latin. Look over what you have done carefully. Correct If you look into the exercises you every mistake and error. will find that the English will assist you in writing the Latin, and the Latin will assist you in writing the English. When you have got both the Latin and the English into as correct a state as you can, copy them neatly into a note-book. Having with the rule or the direction, and also the example. Leave done so, read them carefully over, and compare each instance nothing until you understand the reason. All the examples or illustrations that I give, as well as the chief rules, should be committed to memory. ascertain that you are master of the first. It would be useful Before you proceed to a second lesson, to write out the rules in one consecutive view, in order that, having them all at once under your eye, you may study them in their connection and as a whole, so as to see their bearing one upon another, and the general results to which they lead. Such a practice would have a very beneficial effect on your mind, by habituating it to arrangement and order, and might be expected to afford you valuable aid, both in other studies and in your business pursuits. Carefully avoid haste and slovenliness. Do your best in all that you undertake. "Well," not "much," should be your watchword. Repeated reviews of the ground passed over are very desirable. Every Saturday you should go carefully over what you have done during the week. At the end of every month the work of the month should be reviewed. On arriving at a natural division of our subject-as for instance, when we have treated of the nouns-you should go over, and put together in your mind the substance of what has been said thereon. "Let us not be weary in well doing: for in due season we shall reap, if we faint not." (Gal. vi. 9.) VOCABULARY. Curro, I run. The chief parts are curro, I run; currere, to run; cucurri, I have run; cursus, run. The English representative, or the element in English derived from the parts, is curr; also curs or cours. Con, from cum, means with; dis signifies in different directions; et signifies out of. EXERCISE 1.-LATIN-ENGLISH. Curro and its parts give rise to several English words, as current ("the current coin of the realm"); currency ("the circulating medium"). Another example is found in the phrase "account current." EXERCISE 2.-ENGLISH-LATIN. Find English words derived from some part of curro; find English words derived from curro, with in prefixed; also with con prefixed; also with dis prefixed; also with er prefixed. Remark.—In order to make my meaning quite clear, I will myself do this exercise in part. From cursus comes the Eng lish word course; from in and curs comes incursion; from ex and curs comes excursion. If the reader is acquainted with, or is learning French, he will do well, as he passes on, to find out French words corresponding to, and derived from, Latin words; as in courir, French to run; cours, a course. By comparison he may occasionally find that the same sound or word has a different meaning in French from what it has in Latin or in English. Thus, concursus in Latin means a coming together, as to a meeting, a concourse of people; but the corresponding The first conjugation ends in are, as amare, to love. The fourth conjugation ere, as regere, to rule. French, concours, signifies co-operation. So concurrence in Eng-gations are determined or characterised by the vowel which lish is agreement, but in French competition. By practising precedes the termination re in the infinitive mood; thus:comparisons such as this, you will not only meet with many enrious facts, but be assisted to understand the nature of language itself, as well as receive good mental discipline. If it seems strange to you that the same letters curr or curs should bear dissimilar meanings, a little reflection on the matter will soon take away your surprise. Let us go at once to the primary meaning of curr. Its primary meaning is to run. Now, men may run into, or run out of, or run together, or run about, for different purposes. For instance, they may run together in harmony, and then they concur; or they may run together in rivalry, and then they are in what the French call concurrence, that is, competition. I bave thus, my fellow-student, opened out before you an immense field. It is only a hint or two that I can give; but if you follow these intimations, you will in time become not only a Latin scholar, but a good linguist. In the former part of this lesson I had to employ the word curro, and in so doing I used particularly the form curr. This form is called the stem of the word. The stem of a word is that which contains its essential letters, or the letters which are necessary to make it what it is. Thus, curr is found in every form into which the verb curro passes. Observe that the second vis added merely to strengthen the word, or give force in pronunciation. You find this stem, cur or curs, for instance, in the English words current, incur, concourse, concurrence, discourse. Observe again, that many of our Latin words have come to us through the French. They have, therefore, entered the English in the form which they had received in the French. This is exemplified in concourse and discourse, where an o has been introduced by the French pronunciation, as these words come to us immediately from the French words concours and discours. The stem of a word is found generally by cutting off the final vowel or syllable. In curro you obtain the stem curr by taking away the o. The o in reality is the sign of the first person singular, or I. The word for I is not prefixed in Latin, except when it is required for emphasis, because the terminations of the verb show clearly what person is meant that is, whether it is the first person, I, or the second person, thou, or the third person, he. In the English there is a necessity for the constant use of the personal pronoun, because the endings of the verb are not so different from each other as in the Latin. Thus, in English, we say, I run, thou runnest, he runs, we run, you run, they run. Here, out of six persons, the verb has the esme termination for four-namely, I run, we run, you run, they run. But for the pronouns I, we, you, they, the reader or listener would not be aware from the use of the verb which person was intended. In the Latin, however, the verb has a peculiar ending for every person. After this explanation, we will call these terminations person-endings. These personendings vary with the tense and the voice; that is, they are different in the past tense from what they are in the present tense; and they are different in the passive voice from what they are in the active voice. At present we will confine our selves to the present tense and the active voice. In curro, the person-endings of the present tense, indicative mood, active voice, are as follow: Singular. 1st person PERSON-ENDINGS. 2nd -0, -is, We say then that the first conjugation is known by having a Now, curro, of which I have spoken before, is of the third EXAMPLE.-Amare, to love; stem, am. PRESENT ACTIVE INDICATIVE. 1st per. Amó, I love " " 1st per. PRESENT PASSIVE INDICATIVE. Singular. 1st per. Amór, I am loved 2nd Amáris, thou art loved 3rd » Amátur, he is loved Plural. 1st per. Amámur, we are loved " Plural. Amámus, we love Amátis, you love 2nd Amámini, you are loved 3rd Amánt, they love 3rd Amántur, they are loved. Observe, then, that in order to form any person, you must first get the stem, by cutting off the last syllable. Then to the stem thus obtained, add the proper person-ending. Suppose you have to deal with the verb laudo, I praise; and suppose you want to express in Latin the English they praise; the way to proceed is-throw away the o in laudo; by so doing, you get laud; now, they praise is in the third person plural; the personending of the third person plural is ant, as shown above; subjoin ant to laud, and you have laudant, which means they praise. Or if you have to put laudas into English, by looking at the table you find that its termination-namely, as-is the personending of the second person singular, and consequently laudas means thou praisest. I have entered into this full and minute explanation once for all. If you take pains to make yourself master of it, you will not require its repetition. But take care not merely to consult the tables I give; you must commit them to memory, and never pass on until you have made them in each case your own. Having learnt the form or example, learn the vocabulary, and then put the Latin exercise into English, and the English exercise into Latin. Do this also from memory; but after you have done it, compare your translation with the table or example, and correct it accordingly. Discover and write down the English representatives of the Adding the person-endings to the stem, we have the following Latin words here used; that is to say, the English words example : derived from these Latin words. For instance, from delecto, I delight, we have delight, delightful, delightfully; from orno, I adorn, we have ornament, ornamentally, adorn, adornment; from educo (which properly means I draw out), we have to educate, educator, education. Do the same after every separate exercise. What I have called "the characteristio" of the verb, may be called the sign of the conjugations. Thus, of the first conjugation a long is the sign, and è is the sign of the third. These are Latin signs. Of the corresponding part of the English verb, to is the sign; that is, the preposition to is in general the English sign of the infinitive mood |
