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14046

Writing the numbers as in the margin, proceed thus: 6 times 1 unit are 6 units; write the 6 units under the figure multiplied. 6 times 4 tens are 24 tens; set 2341 multiplicand the 4 or right-hand figure under the figure 6 multiplier multiplied, and carry the 2 or left-hand figure to the next product, as in addition. 6 times 3 hundreds are 18 hundreds, and 2 to carry make 20 hundreds; set the 0 under the figure multiplied, and earry the 2 to the next product, as above. 6 times 2 thousands are 12 thousands, and 2 to carry make 14 thousands. There being no more figures to be multiplied, set down the 14 in full, as in addition. The required product is 14046.

Before proceeding to the second case, the learner is requested to make himself familiar with the process of multiplying any number by one figure, by means of the following

EXERCISE 6.

(1.) Multiply 83 by 7; 549 by 5; 6879 by 9; 7891011 by 8; 567893459 by 3; 9057832917 by 11, and the result by 7. (2.) Find the continued product of 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 3, 9. (3.) Find the products of the number 142857 by the nine digits. (4.) Find the products of the number 98998, the smallest number contained in the second square in Ex. 4, page 23, by the nine digits, and you will find these products in the same table.

(5.) Multiply 857142 by 9; 76876898 by 2; 1010400600 by 7; 79806090 by 8; and 999999999999 by 5.

(6.) Multiply the following numbers first by 2 and then by 3:

1. 58745

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2. 63294

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3. 82563

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10. 20907653

11. 42765401

12. 22663973

(7.) Multiply the following numbers first by 4 and then by 5:

10. 19977991

11. 83215946

12. 18671868

(8.) Multiply the following numbers first by 6 and then by 7:

1.54785

4. 839768

7. 9611437

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8. 3902914

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3. 36528

10. 73689202

11. 12345678

12. 91223344

(9.) Multiply the following numbers first by 8 and then by 9:

1. 73924

4. 995323

7. 6778899

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8. 7129304

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10. 79911997

11. 64951238

12. 89012345

(10.) I have a box divided into two parts; in each part there are three parcels; in each parcel there are four bags; in each bag there are five marbles. How many marbles are there in the box? (11.) There are six farmers, each of whom has a grazing farm of seven fields; each field has eight corners, and in each corner there are nine sheep. How many sheep do the farmers own, and how many are feeding on their farms?

Case 2.-To multiply 675 by 337:

Since 337 is 300 +30 +7, if we multiply 675 by 7, by 30, and by 300 successively, we shall obtain the required product. Arrange the work as in operation (1) :

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(1.) When the multiplier consists of one figure, write it down under the unit's place of the multiplicand. Begin at the right hand, and multiply each figure of the multiplicand by the multiplier, setting down the result and carrying as in addition.

(2.) When the multiplier consists of more than one figure, write down the multiplier under the multiplicand, units under units, tens under tens, etc. Multiply each figure of the multiplicand by each figure of the multiplier separately, beginning with the units, and write the products so obtained in separate lines,

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LESSONS IN BOTANY.-II.

SECTION II.-ON THE SCIENTIFIC CLASSIFICATION OF
VEGETABLES.

THE observer who takes a survey of the various members of
the vegetable world becomes cognisant of at least one promi-
nent distinction between them. He soon perceives, that whilst
certain vegetables have flowers others have not; or perhaps,
flowers, they are imperceptible.
more correctly speaking, if the second division really possess

This distinction was first laid hold of as a basis of classification by the celebrated Linnæus, and to this extent the classification adopted by that great philosopher was strictly natural; beyond this, however, it was altogether artificial, as we shall find hereafter.

Now, taking advantage of this distinction, the great Swedish naturalist termed the evident flowering vegetables phænogamous, from the Greek word palvoμai (phai'-no-mai), I appear; or, phanerogamous, from the Greek word pavepós (phan'-er-os), evident; and he designated the non-flowering, or more correctly gamic, from the Greek word кρужтós (kroop'-tos), concealed. The speaking, the non-evident flowering plants, by the word cryptofurther classification of Linnæus was artificial, as already stated. The nature of this classification we cannot we have study with advantage just yet. Hereafter we shall proceed to explain the principles on which it was based; but in these

lessons the artificial system of Linnæus will not be adopted as a basis for teaching the science. In point of fact, the Linnæan system may now be considered as obsolete. In making this division of plants into evident-flowering and non-evident flowering, or phænogamous and cryptogamic, the learner must take care not to fall into mistakes. He must greatly expand his common notions of a flower, and not restrict the appellation to those pretty floral ornaments which become objects of attraction, and of which bouquets are made. On the contrary, he must admit to the right of being regarded as a flower any floral part, however small, even though a lens should prove necessary for the discovery. Thus, in common language, we do not usually speak of the oak, and the ash, and the beech, elm, etc., as being flower-bearing trees; but they are, nevertheless; and consequently belong to the first grand division of evident flower-bearing, or phænogamous or phanerogamous plants. In point of fact, the learner may remember as a rule, to which there are no excep

and-by)-let him turn the lower surface of the frond upper. most, and there will be seen many rows of dark stripes. These are termed sporidia, and they contain the sporules of the plant, which sporules therefore may be got by opening the sporidia Sporules, when regarded by the naked eye, look almost like dust; when examined under a microscope, however, their outline can be easily recognised. The difference between a sporidium (singular of sporidia) and a real seed may be thus explained. A seed has only one part (the embryo or germ) from which the young plant can spring; whereas a sporule does not refuse to sprout from any side which may present itself to the necessary conditions of earth and moisture.

Although the sporules are thus easily discoverable in the fern tribe, yet the botanical student must not expect to find them thus readily in other members of the cryptogamic tribe, in various members of which not only does their position vary. but their presence is totally undiscoverable.

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tions, that every member of the vegetable world which bears a fruit, and consequently seeds, belongs to the phanerogamous division. By following the indications of this rule, we restrict the cryptogamic, or non-evident-flowering plants, to the seemingly narrow limits of ferns, mushrooms, mosses, and a few others, all of which are devoid of seeds, properly so called, but are furnished with a substitute for seeds, termed sporules or spores. Sporules, then, the learner may remember, are, so to speak, the seeds of flowerless and therefore seedless plants. In the study of botany we meet with a great many hard, but useful terms; they will spring up in our path often enough, therefore let us shoot them flying whenever we have a chance, and fix them on some sort of memory-peg, even although the latter may be a joke.

If the reader wishes to ascertain what these sporules are like, let him take the leaf of a fern-which, by the way, is no leaf at all, but a frond (we will explain the meaning of this term by

SECTION III. ON THE ORGANS OF VEGETABLES.

Vegetable organs admit of the very natural division into those intended for nutriment and growth, and those intended for propagation. Hence we may speak of them as nutritive and reproductive organs. Nutritive organs consist of leaves, stems, branches, roots, and various appendages to all of these, hereafter to be described; whilst the reproductive organs of vegetables are flowers and their appendages.

The Root.-We have already seen that it does not suffice to constitute a root that the portion of the vegetable treated of be underground Thus, for example, as it was remarked in the preceding lesson, che potato is not a root, but a tuber; an onion is not a root, but a bulb.

A root may be defined as a filamentous or thread-like (Latin filum, a thread) offset from the descending axis of the plant, differing from the stem itself in certain relations of a botanical structure, and each filament ending in a soft absorbent tuft

denominated the spongiole, the function of which consists in absorbing moisture, and conveying it into the structure of the plant. Hence the chief and primary use of the root is that of nutrition; but it also serves as a means of enabling the plant to take firm hold of the earth in which it grows. Representations of various roots are shown in Figs. 5, 6, 7, 8, and 9. In most cases, the part at which the stem ends and the root begins is well defined. It is denominated the collar. Although the general characteristic of the root is to seek the ground, as the characteristic of the stem is to seek the air, nevertheless stems frequently assume a tendency to become roots, and roots to become stems. A very remarkable example of the former tendency is furnished by the banyan tree, or ficus religiosa, a native of India. This tree has a natural tendency to shoot down prolongations from its stem, which, taking root, cover the ground with an arbourlike growth of most fantastic appearance. The opposite tendency is recognisable in certain varieties of the elm, which shoot up sprouts from the root over large tracts of ground in the vicinity of the parent trunk, very much to the annoyance of the farmer, whose land is thus considerably damaged. Although the essential characteristic of a stem is to ascend into the air, yet certain forms of stem in some vegetables exist underground; of this kind are ginger, and the so-called orris-root. Stems of this kind are known in botany by the appellation of rhizomes (Fig. 3).

say, stole-bearing, which expression requires the previous expla nation of the word stole. A stole, then, is a little stem which springs from the axilla (literally, arm-pit), or point at which the leaves spring from the stem. The strawberry (Fig. 4) affords a common and well-marked illustration of this kind of root.

A bulb is an underground bud, from the upper part of which the stem arises, and from the lower part of which the root descends (Fig. 7). The onion furnishes us with a very familiar example.

Tubers or tubercles are expansions of underground stems, usually containing much fecular or starchy matter, and studded with eyes or buds. The potato and the dahlia (Fig. 8) furnish us with very familiar examples of a tuber.

The Stem may be either annual, biennial, or perennial. It is termed annual when it becomes developed in the spring and dies before the winter, as, for instance, is the case with wheat; biennial, when it lives two years; of this kind is the carrot, which during the first year only produces leaves, and having lived two years flowers and dies. Perennial stems are those which live many years, as is the case with trees in general. As regards their hardness, trunks or stems are usually divided into herbaceous (Latin, herba, grass), subligneous, and ligneous (Latin, lignum, wood). Herbaceous stems are those in which woody fibre is almost altogether absent, and which are therefore soft and juicy; of this kind is the stem of parsley, hemlock, etc. Subligneous stems are those in which woody fibre, although present, does not exist in the smaller shoots; of this kind are sage and rue, the bases of the stems of which are hard and woody, and therefore continue for many years, whereas the

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LESSONS IN FRENCH.—IV. SECTION 1.-FRENCH PRONUNCIATION (continued). III. NAME AND SOUND OF THE VOWELS (continued.) 36. BEFORE proceeding to the illustration of the sound and use of e mute or unaccented, let us commend the following extract to the careful perusal of the pupil. Speaking of the unaccented e, it is said "Several of our best orthoepists express themselves thus on that subject: The proper utterance of the unaccented e characterises, in part, the pronunciation of the gentleman, as the vicious one marks the low-bred and ignorant. The unaccented e is sometimes pronounced and sometimes not; and in that consists a great difficulty for foreigners, who, always pronouncing it full, are long before they are able to follow a French conversation, and thence are inclined to believe that the French speak much faster than any other people. The truth is that the French, taking them in general, do not speak faster than other people; but in conversation, and in familiar reading, they drop the unaccented e as often as they can do it, and thus go quicker through a sentence than does a foreigner, who gives the full sound of u in tub to every unaccented e he meets with. Thus the word contenance, and the phrase je n'ai pas reçu tout le vêtement, will be pronounced by a foreigner and a Frenchman native of Gascony, con-te-nan-ce-je né pa re-çu tou le vê-te-men; whereas a well-bred Frenchman will pronounce, cont-nans-jné pa rsu toul vêt-men, sounding in the first word two syllables only, where the others would sound four; and in the sentence sounding six syllables, where the others would sound ten.'" The French custom of clipping or shortening words as much as possible, in ordinary reading and common conversation, is well illustrated in the following sentence, namely:

'Quand vous serez le même, vous me trouverez le même.” This sentence contains thirteen syllables in prose, namely:Quand-vous-se-rez-le-même-vous-me-trou-ve-rez-le-même. In poetry, même would have two syllables. However, in familiar reading and conversation, it is pronounced in eight syllables only, viz. :Quand-vou-srel-mêm-voum-trouv-rel-mêm. The suppression of this e is precisely the reason why foreigners imagine that the French speak so very quickly.

37. E, e, MUTE OR UNACCENTED.-Name, uh; sound, like the sound of the letter u in the English word nut; or, like the sound of the last syllable er in the words over and water, when spoken quickly.

The e mute or unaccented "is a mere emission of the voice without any distinct sound. It either succeeds a consonant, by the articulation of which it becomes sensible, or comes after a vowel, of which it may be considered the prolongation.'

It is confessedly difficult to illustrate the sound of this vowel by the aid of English letters, yet it is worthy an honest attempt. True, it may be acquired from a teacher, by sheer imitation; but alas, all learners are not good imitators! If it can be illustrated by analogous English sounds, it seems quite reasonable to suppose that through this process many more students would

understand and acquire it, than if they were left merely to the doubtful policy of imitation. Let us try.

Before the pupil attempts to pronounce the French words used for examples, let him observe most carefully the sound of the last syllable of the following words, when uttered as they usually are in common conversation, namely:

Moth-er, Broth-er, Nev-er, Sis-ter, Wa-ter. Take any one of the above English words, viz:—the first, moth-er. Pronounce it naturally and aloud with a full voice several times, until the common sound of the last syllable in particular is familiar to the ear. Take each of those words, and thus practise, by pronouncing aloud carefully, but naturally, observing at the same time the sound of the last syllable.

Now, by what combination of letters would you represent that sound? By ur, as in the first syllable of the English word mur-mur? or by uh? Manifestly the latter. Below are a few French words, which you will now proceed to pronounce aloud, giving to the vowel e in each example the last syllable of the word nev-er. Pronounce each of the following French words quickly and abruptly, as if an exclamation mark were placed over each one of them, namely:

Ce like suh.

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That is, exactly like the sound of the last syllable of the English word wa-ter. Que like kuh.

That is, like the sound of the last syllable of the English word baker, pronounced rather carelessly.

Take, if you please, another illustration, viz.: the sound of u sound of the French word ne. in the English word nut, as explained above, in illustrating the of e mute or unaccented. This will give the correct sound

The sound of e mute or unaccented resembles the sound of the

letter e of the word the, which is heard in pronouncing quickly these two words, viz.-the man. Apply the sound of this e, thus pronounced, to the e in the following words, viz.:-ce, de, je, me, ne, se, te, que, etc.

sound of the English a pronounced naturally. Let the organs Or lastly, the sound of e mute or unaccented is based upon the tion, whilst the lips are protruded as if to pout or whistle. Then, within the mouth maintain as nearly as possible the same posiwhilst the mouth is in this position, endeavour to pronounce the English a again; this, in a majority of cases, will give the correct sound of e mute or unaccented. this last-mentioned plan aloud, and the ear will soon detect the Practise frequently on viciousness or correctness of the sound. Most pupils find it will, in due time, overcome every obstacle. more or less difficult to acquire this sound; but perseverance

In illustrating the sound of e mute or unaccented, the follow

ing signs will be used, sometimes one, again the other, viz. :—uh,

and the apostrophe, thus :

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3. When it is deemed necessary to express in French the difference existing in English between the words this and that, the adverbs ci and là may be placed after the nouns [§ 20 (2)]. I have not this parasol, I have that Je n'ai pas ce parasol-ci, j'ai ce parasol là, parasol.

4. The demonstrative pronouns, celui, m., celle, f., this or that, are used to represent nouns, but are never joined with them like adjectives [§ 36, § 37 (1)J.

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Vous avez celui-ci, mais vous n'avez pas celui-là,

You have this one (the latter), but
you have not that one (the former).

28. The stranger has no poultry, but he has money. 29. Your
brother is hungry and thirsty, afraid and sleepy. 30. Is any one
ashamed? 31. No, Sir, nobody is ashamed.
32. Is your
brother right or wrong? 33. My brother is right, and yours is
wrong. 34. Your sister has neither her satin hat nor her
velvet hat. 35. Has the baker the mahogany chest of drawers?
36. He has it not, he has the mahogany sofa. 37. Has the
tinman my plate? 38. He has not your plate, he has mine.

SECTION IX.-THE PLURAL OF NOUNS (§ 8).
1. The plural in French is generally formed, as in English, by

6. The pronouns ceci and cela are used absolutely, that is, the addition of s to the singular.

withcat a noun, in pointing out objects.
Nous n'avons pas ceci, nous avons cela,
Deci oa cela,

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We have not this, we have that.
This or that.

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VOCABULARY.

Encrier, m., inkstand.
Fromage, m., cheese.
Jardinier, m., gardener.
Lait, m., milk.
Lettre, f., letter.
Malle, f., trunk.

Parasol, m., parasol.
EXERCISE 13.

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1. Votre frère a-t-il son encrier d'argent? 2. Il ne l'a plus, il a un encrier de plomb. 3. Avons-nous la lettre de l'étranger? 4. Oni, Monsieur, nous avons celle de l'étranger. (R. 4.) 5. Votre sœur n'a pas son ardoise, mais elle a son chapeau de Batin. 6. Le menuisier a-t-il votre bois ou le sien? 7. Il n'a ni le mien ni le sien, il a celui du jardinier. 8. Avez-vous mon bon parapluie de soie? 9. J'ai votre parapluie de soie et votre parasol de satin. 10. Avez-vous ma bouteille ? 11. Je n'ai pas

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4. 3rd EXCEPTION.-The following nouns ending in ou take a for the plural :-bijou, jewel; caillou, pebble; chou, cabbage; genou, knee; hibou, owl; joujou, plaything.

Les bijoux, les cailloux, les choux, The jewels, the pebbles, the cabbages. Les hiboux, les genoux, les joujoux. The owls, the knees, the playthings. 5. 4th EXCEPTION.-The following nouns ending in ail change that termination into aux for the plural:-bail, lease; corail, coral; émail, enamel; soupirail, air-hole; sous-bail, under-lease; travail, labour.

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Le cheval, les chevaux,
Le général, les généraux,
Bal, ball; carnaval, carnival;
follow the general rule.

The horse, the horses.

The general, the generals. chacal, jackal; régal, treat,

7. 6th EXCEPTION.-Ciel, heaven; œil, eye; and aïeul, ances-
tor, form their plural irregularly.
Les cieux, les yeux, les aïeux,

The heavens, the eyes, the ancestors.
For further rules see § 8, § 9, and § 10, of Part II.
RÉSUMÉ OF EXAMPLES.

votre bouteille, j'ai la malle de votre sœur. 12. Le domestique
a-t-il cette salière ? 13. Il n'a pas cette salière-ci, il a celle-là.
14. Avez-vous le bon ou le mauvais poulet? 15. Je n'ai ni
celui-ci ni celui-là. 16. Quel poulet avez-vous? 17. J'ai celui
da cuisinier. 18. Le boulanger a-t-il de la volaille? (Sect. IV. 1.) Les Anglais ont-ils les chevaux du Have
19. Le boulanger n'a pas de volaille, il a du lait. (Sect. V. 5.)
20. Avez-vous votre fromage ou le mien? 21. Je n'ai ni le
votre ni le mien, j'ai celui du matelot. 22. Quelqu'un a-t-il
faim? 23. Personne n'a faim. 24. Avez-vous quelque chose?
25. Non, Monsieur, je n'ai rien. 26. Avez-vous le sofa d'acajou
de mon menuisier ? 27. Non, Monsieur, je ne l'ai pas. 28. J'ai
son joli miroir et son bon crayon.

EXERCISE 14.

1. Has your brother that lady's umbrella? 2. My brother has that lady's umbrella? 3. Have you this parasol or that one? 4. I have neither this (one) nor that (one). 5. Have you the stranger's gold watch? 6. No, Sir, I have the baker's. 7. Who has my slate? 8. I have your slate and your brother's. Has the cook a silver salt stand? 10. The cook has a silver salt stand, and a silver dish. 11. Has the cook this poultry or that? 12. He has neither this nor that. 13. Has he this bread or that? 14. He has neither this nor that, he has the baker's good bread. 15. Have you my cotton parasol ? 16. I have not your cotton parasol, I have your silk parasol. Has the gardener a leather trunk? 18. The gardener has a leather trunk. 19. Who has my good cheese? 20. Nobody has your cheese, but some one has your brother's. 21. Have you mine or his? 22. I have neither yours nor his, I have the stranger's. 23. Has the cook this bottle or that broom? 24. He has this bottle. 25. Have you a lead inkstand? 26. No, Sir, I have a china inkstand. 27. Has the stranger poultry?

17.

général ?

Les généraux n'ont pas les bijoux.
Les enfants ont-ils les cailloux ?
Les yeux de l'enfant.
Les tableaux de cette église.
Avez-vous les oiseaux de ce bois ?
Avez-vous les encriers d'argent de
ma sœur?

J'ai les bijoux d'argent et d'or de
l'étranger.

Les rois n'ont-ils pas les palais de

marbre ?

Baril, m., barrel.
Bas, m., stocking.
Bijou, m., jewel.
Chocolat, m., chocolate.
Chou, m., cabbage.
Dans, in.

Enfant, m., child.

Fer, m., iron.
Fils, m., son.

the English the general's
horses?
The generals have not the jewels.
Have the children the pebbles?
The child's eyes.

The pictures of that church.
Have you the birds of that wood?
Have you my sister's silver inkstands?

I have the gold and silver jewels of
the foreigner.
Have not the kings the marble
palaces?

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1. Avez-vous les marteaux du charpentier ? 2. Nous avons les marteaux du maréchal. 3. Les maréchaux ont-ils deux marteaux de bois? 4. Ils ont deux marteaux de fer. 5. Les généraux ont-ils les chapeaux de soie de l'enfant ? 6. Ils ont

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