succession, and, in connection with it, enter into such particulars as may appear desirable with a view to my object. Before I close the chapter, however, I will add a few general remarks respecting the actual classification, which bears the name of the nine (or ten) parts of speech. The aim of the classification is to arrange under separate heads all the words of the English (or any other) language. Now a good classification has two qualities: first. it is exhaustive; secondly, it is distinchre. It is exhaustive-that is, it comprises and places under some suitable head all the facts. It is distinctive-that is, it makes such clear and sharp distinctions as to place the several facts each under its own head, without confounding similar facts together, or putting under one head facts which may as properly stand under another head. The classification under review is neither exhaustive nor distinctive. It is not exhaustive, for it leaves out the infinitive mood, which has as good a right to be called a part of speech as the participle. It is not distinctive, for the term adjective makes no distinction where a distinction exists, and the term participle makes a distinction where no distinction is required. Indeed, the classification is wholly unscientific, being based not on a principle, but on vague and general views. Something less objectionable may be offered in the following words. (8) (9) (1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) And lo! Stanley rising quickly caused great wrath in the king. 1. Conjunction. 2. Interjection. 3. Noun. 4. Participle. 5. Adverb. 6. Verb. 7. Adjective. 8. Preposition. 9. Article. In the last example, one part of speech is omitted to exercise the mind of the student, who is also expected to effect the reduction of the proposition to the name of being and the name of action. Let the reader carefully study and analyse the following sentences 1. Propositions without an object. Birds sing. Cows graze. Rabbits burrow. Dogs fight. Children play. 2. Propositions with an object. The sun lights the earth. The trees produce fruit. The rain waters the meadows. Storms purify the air. The universe proclaims its Autho Qualifying words may be added at will, as— 3. Propositions with a subject and object qualified. My young brother teased the little animals. Avaricious tradesmen overcharge all their goods. A diligent scholar learns all his lessons. I subjoin some fragments to be made into complete sentences:1. Propositions lacking subjects. aids his sick mother. - neglect their - promises a rich harvest. cost leads a blind man. much money. 2. Propositions lacking objects. Disobedient children deserve The proud despise Thick clouds cover A bad child grieves - An honest debtor pays — Wise men 3. Propositions lacking verbs. The eldest sister the younger ones. The father- his incorrigible son. Noisy boys the neighbourhood. The police public order. A grateful daughter tender mother. The divine Saviour human infirmities. Speech corresponds to the realities which it represents. Those realities are thoughts and things. Now, thoughts and things may be reduced to three classes:-1, Objects; 2, qualities of objects; 3, actions. Consequently, the essential parts of speech are the noun, the adjective, and the verb. But objects and their qualities are the same things differently viewed. We may therefore strike out qualities. Thus we have two classes leftnamely, the noun and the verb. Verbs, however, are the names er action, as nouns are the names of being. Hence language rebuke resolves itself into names. We may, then, declare that speech is made up of names. These names may be expanded and divided into 1, names of being, or nouns; 2, names of action, or verbs; and 3, names of qualities, or adjectives. Under the last head, or names of qualities, may stand other parts of speech, for the adverb names the quality of the action of the verb, and the article names the extent in which the noun is to be taken. The term particles has not inappropriately been applied to adverbs and conjunctions, for. to a considerable degree they appear to be parts (particles-that is, little parts) or fragments of once existing nouns and verbs. If, however, our analysis of language into names of being and names of action is correct, then the sentence which, as given above, contains all the nine parts of speech, may be reduced to two; as, our It may here be necessary, by anticipation, to inform the totally SINGULAR: A boy loves; the house stands; the duck swims. The rule might be put in another form, as, when the noun has an LESSONS IN GEOGRAPHY.-III. NOTIONS OF THE GREEKS AND ROMANS. THE desire for nautical expeditions, which, under the excitement of commercial enterprise, had begun to spread among the nations, was restrained by the conquests of the Romans. These conquests, however, if they did not extend the boundaries of the known world, at least enriched the domain of geographical knowledge with new facts, and more exact than those which had been collected and taken for granted by the writers of former ages. The three Punic (Carthaginian) wars, the Illyrian war, the contests with the Gauls, the expeditions against Spain, and those of Etius Gallus into Arabia and Ethiopia, all contributed, in their turn, to give to this science a more positive character and more varied details. Polybius, about 150 years before the age of Hipparchus, gave a description of the world which, notwithstanding his numerous errors, evinced remarkable progress in the knowledge of the globe. The new acquisitions of the Romans, and of Mithridates Eupator, the campaigns of Julius Cæsar in Gaul and in Britain, rendered accessible the knowledge of countries hitherto but partially explored, or altogether unknown. Posidonius, a Syrian, resident at Rhodes, endeavoured to correct the measurement of the earth's circumference formerly made by Eratosthenes. He observed that when the star Canopus, in the constellation Argo, became visible in the horizon of Rhodes, it was elevated seven degrees and a half above the horizon of Alexandria. He supposed these places to be under the same meridian, and, from the reckoning of navigators, he found the distance between them to be 5,000 stadia. Now, seven degrees and a half being the forty-eighth part of a great circle of the sphere, this gives the circumference of the earth equal to 240,000 stadia. This was a nearer approximation to the truth than that of Eratosthenes, but it was founded on erroneous data; for the arc of the great circle between the two places above mentioned was only about 5° 15', and the difference between their two meridians was rather more than 2° Strabo, who flourished under the reign of Augustus Cæsar, corrected many errors of the geographers who preceded him, and made some of his own. The limits of his knowledge of the world were, on the north, Ierne or Ireland, and the mouth of the Elbe. He denied the existence of Thule, and asserted that the earth was not habitable at the distance of 4,000 tadia north of Britain. On the east, he considered Ceylon, or Taprobane and Thinæ, the borders of the world, and it is doubtful whether his knowledge of it extended as far as the mouths of the Ganges. He knew the western coast of Africa ! minds of men for a period of no less than twelve centuries of the history of the world. When we consider the advanced state of the arts and sciences in the age of Augustus Cæsar, at least compared with those which preceded it, we cannot but wonder at the imperfect state of geographical knowledge which existed in the Roman world at this period. Horace considered Great Britain and the Thames as the confines of the earth; and Virgil, as we have already remarked, placed the source of the Nile in India. The geographical productions of Dionysius Periegetes and of Pomponius Mela, written within a period of fifty years after the Christian era, contain nothing worthy of notice, being mere compilations of what was then known, and by no means improved. When the legions of the Emperor Claudius Cæsar, A.D. 40, marched to the conquest of Britain, this country was a new world to the Romans. The fleet of Agricola, thirty-five years afterwards, circumnavigated Scotland, explored the surrounding seas, and re-discovered the famous Thule. But even at this epoch Great Britain was still a mysterious country; Tacitus as far as Cape Nun. But he partook of the error of those who represented the Caspian Sea as united to the Northern Ocean; and he rejected the positive information of Herodotus on this point. He acknowledged little regard for the authority of this ancient historian, and his doubt on the subject of the voyages of Pytheas, Hanno, and Eudoxus, showed his ignorance of many important geographical questions. Strabo adopted the division of the earth into climates recognised by Greek and Roman authors previous to his time. Long before him, indeed, as well as after him, the globe was divided into five zones, namely, two frigid or frozen zones near the poles, one torrid or central zone scorched by the sun and extending along the equatorial line on each side of it, and two others called the temperate zones, occupying the rest of the world. The last-named were considered to be the only habitable portions of the globe; and as to the torrid zone, it was supposed to be condemned, on account of its fiery climate, not only to eternal solitude, but to present an invincible obstacle to the exploration of the countries situated beyond the equator. It will afford an illustration of the force of those ideas which prevailed on the subject of the zones of the globe, and on the relative position of the great divisions of the earth, when we reflect on the fact that they maintained their ground in the says it was bounded on the east by Germany, on the south by Gaul, and on the west by Spain. As to Ireland, he places i midway between Spain and Great Britain. The interior of Germany became known to the Romans in consequence of thei active commerce with certain northern parts of Europe, which arose from the passion of the Roman ladies for succinum o yellow amber. In the east, a discovery of very great importance advanced the progress of navigation and geography. Hippalus about the middle of the first century, established the fact of the periodicity of the monsoons, or trade-winds, in the Indian Ocean, which from that period has regulated the motions of the western navigators to India and the Asiatic Archipelago. On the south, the expedition of the Consul Suetonius Paulinus into the country of Sejelmissa, on the borders of the Sahara, of Great Desert of Africa, disclosed those parts of the moder Morocco and Algeria which extend southwards, from the souther side of Mount Atlas to the confines of the sun-scorched desert The campaign of Cornelius Balbus in a neighbouring and paralle region, was accompanied with still more interesting results The Roman army set out for Tripoli, traversed the desert penetrated into Fezzan, and advanced even into the country visited by Messrs. Denham and Clapperton in 1822, that is, to the vicinity of Bornou. Of the scientific information gained by these enterprises, the celebrated Caius Secundus Pliny availed himself, in his Natural History. He also knew how to dip with considerable discernment into the writings of the Greeks; but he appears not to have considered it necessary to consult the work of Strabo. From the information he had obtained in this way, he assigned to the different quarters of the world then known the following magnitudes :-To Europe, one-third; to Asia, one-fourth; and to Africa one-fifth of the whole. Marinus of Tyre, who preceded Ptolemy, was distinguished for his geographical knowledge. He took advantage of all ancient and contemporary writers to compose a complete treatise on the subject of geography and maps; and he even prepared new editions of his books, corrected and improved in proportion as he obtained more exact information; but it is to be regretted that these have not reached us. At last appeared, about the middle of the second century, the famous Ptolemy, who lived at Alexandria in Egypt, and taught astronomy there. His system of astronomy and geography, which stood unimpeached for about twelve centuries, and received the name of the Ptolemaic system from its author, was not superseded till Copernicus appeared; and notwithstanding his errors, due more to the ignorance of mankind than to himself, his name is still revered as a geographer and astronomical observer. His work entitled the “Megale Syntaxis, or Great Construction," is a monument of his labour and his learning. He examined the ratio of the length of the gnomon or style of the sun-dial to its shadow at the equinoxes and the solstices; he calculated eclipses; he investigated the calculations founded on the difference of climate, and carefully consulted the reports of travellers and navigators. He reduced his information and observations into a regular system, and expressed the positions of places by longitude and latitude, after the manner of Hipparchus. His great work consists nearly of an elementary picture of the earth, in which its figure and size, and the positions of places on its surface, are determined. It contains only a very short outline of the division of countries, with scarcely any historical notice. It is supposed that a detailed account was added to this outline, but it has not reached us. His geography is contained in eight books, and is certainly more scientific than any previous work on the subject. He taught how to determine the longitude by lunar eclipses, and by this method ascertained that of many places with tolerable accuracy. According to Ptolemy, the limits of the world were Thule on the north, and the Prassum Promontorium on the south, the former being, most probably, some part of Norway, and the latter some unknown point south-west of Madagascar. Its mits on the west were the Fortunate Isles, now the Canaries; and on the east, Thinæ in Sine or China. He rejected the theory of all preceding geographers, who represented the world surrounded by an impassable ocean on all sides; and he replaced it by an indefinite expanse of unknown land. He rejected the true reports of circumnavigation of Africa, and extended its Emits southward beyond all reasonable bounds. With Europe, Ptolemy was tolerably well acquainted; and he described Germany and Sarmatia with some degree of accuracy. He knew the Ems, the Weser, the Elbe, the Oder, and the Vistula. He calls Jutland the Cimbric Chersonese or Peninsula, and the Baltic, the Sarmatic Ocean; but he failed in his account of this inland sea. He was better acquainted with the south of Russia in Europe, with the Tanais, the Borysthenes, and the Euxine, or Black Sea. In his description of the Mediterranean there are many errors; but his account is more accurate with them all than that of any previous geographer. In regard to Asia, his knowledge was obscure and unsatisfactory, though some features can be still identified with fact. Here he described the "Golden Chersonese," and the Magnus Sinus, or Great Bay of India. These appear to have been the IndoChinese countries of Ava, Pegu, and Malacca, with their adjacent gulfs or bays; and Thina, which he places at this remote corner, is supposed to be Siam, rather than any place in China. The Serica of Ptolemy in the north of Asia is supposed, with good reason, to be China, which was reached by great trading caravans, which proceeded from Byzantium (or Constantinople), across Asia Minor, crossing the Euphrates at Hierapolis, and passing through Media, by way of Ecbatana to Hecatompylos, the capital of Parthia. Their next route was through Hyrcania, Aris, Margiana, and Bactria, whence they ascended the table-land of the interior of Asia, passed over the Montes Comedorum, or Beloor Mountains, and reached the celebrated Lithinos Pyrgos, or "Stone Tower," a station whose site is still a doubtful question among geographers. From this station to the frontier of Serica was a seven months' hard and perilous journey. The description which Ptolemy gives of Serica corresponds more exactly to China than any other country; and his account of the manners and customs of the inhabitants identifies it still more. Moreover, the staple commodity of this overland trade was silk, for which China has been celebrated from time immemorial. Ptolemy appears to have had a considerable knowledge of Hindostan or India, both within and beyond the Ganges; a knowledge said to be superior to that of the moderns till within the limits of the present century. With regard to Africa, this statement may just be reversed. But, on the whole, his work must be considered a singular monument of industry, and a valuable book of reference in all matters relating to the ancient geography of the world. A yair 40. E, ê, CIRCUMFLEX.-Name, ai; sound, like the letters ai in the English word stair. É has a longer and broader sound than è. The mouth must be opened wider in pronouncing the former than the latter. In ordinary reading and common conversation, the difference between é and è is hardly perceptible. Still there is a difference; just the difference between pronouncing e like the letters ai in the English word stair with the mouth half opened, and pronouncing the same letters in the same word with the mouth well opened, and also prolonging the sound. Practice will demonstrate this. 4. Sect. IV. 5, and Sect. VI. 4, apply also to plural nouns right or wrong P 8. I am right, I am not wrong. 9. Has the used partitively. Nous n'avons pas de livres, Vous avez de bons crayons, We have no books. 1. Avez-vous les marteaux des maréchaux ? 2. Oui, Monsieur, je les ai. 3. Ne les avez-vous pas ? 4. Non, Monsieur, nous ne les avons pas. 5. L'ouvrier les a. 6. L'aubergiste a-t-il vos chevaux ? 7. L'aubergiste n'a ni mes chevaux ni les vôtres, il a les siens. 8. Le médecin a-t-il des livres ? 9. Oui, Monsieur, il a de bons livres. 10. N'avez-vous pas mes meilleures plumes ? 11. Oui, Monsieur, j'ai vos meilleures plumes, les miennes, et celles de votre cousine. 12. Le voyageur a-t-il de bons fusils? 13. Il n'a pas de bons fusils, il a des fusils de fer. 14. Le matelot n'a-t-il pas mes matelas de crin? 15. I ne les a pas. 16. Qu'a-t-il ? 17. Il a les matelas de laine de l'ébéniste. 18. L'ébéniste a-t-il des tables d'acajou? 19. Oui, Madame, il a des tables d'acajou et des tables de marbre blanc. 20. Avez-vous mes chaises ou les vôtres ? 21. Je n'ai ni les vôtres ni les miennes, j'ai celles de l'ébéniste. 22. N'avez-vous pas sommeil? 23. Non, Monsieur, je n'ai ni sommeil ni faim. 24. Le ferblantier a-t-il vos chandeliers de fer? 25. Non, Monsieur, il a ceux du maréchal. EXERCISE 18. 1. Have you my tables or yours? 2. I have neither yours nor mine, I have the innkeeper's. 3. Have you them? 4. No, Sir, I have them not. 5. Has your sister my horses? 6. Yes, Sir, she has your two horses and your brother's. 7. Are you tinman my silver candlesticks or yours? 10. He has neithe your silver candlesticks nor mine. 11. What has he? 12. H has the cabinet-maker's wooden tables. 13. Has he your maho gany chairs? 14. No, Sir, he has my white marble tables. 15 Have you these tables or those? 16. I have neither these no those, I have the cabinet-maker's. 17. Have you good pencil cases ? 18. No, Sir, but I have good pencils. 19. Has th traveller iron guns? 20. Yes. Sir, he has mine, yours, and his 21. Has he not your brother's? 22. He has not my brother': 23. Has the workman my iron hammers? 24. Yes, Sir, he ha them. 25. Has my brother your pens or my cousin's? 26. H has mine and yours. 27. Have you the children's clothes? 28 Yes, Madam, I have them. 29. Have you your sister's hat 30. I have my cousin's, f. 31. Is anything the matter wit your brother? 32. He is cold and hungry. 33. Have yo horses? 34. Yes, Sir, I have two horses. 35. I have tw horse-hair mattresses and one wool mattress. 6. The adjectives beau, handsome; fou, foolish; mou, soft nouveau, new; vieux, old; become, bel, fol, mol, nouvel, an vieil, before a noun masculine commencing with a vowel or an mute; the last consonant of the latter form is doubled, and added, for the feminine. Ex.: Belle, folle, nouvelle, vieille. 7. Additional rules and exceptions will be found in § 15 Part II. 8. CONJUGATION OF THE PRESENT OF THE INDICATIVE OF ETRE, TO BE. 8. 1. Cette dame est-elle contente ? 2. Non, Monsieur, cette dame n'est pas contente. 3. Votre fille est-elle vive? 4. Mon fils est très vif et ma fille est paresseuse. 5. N'a-t-elle pas tort? 6. Elle n'a pas raison. 7. Votre cousine est-elle heureuse? Oni, Madame, elle est bonne, belle, et heureuse. 9. A-t-elle des amis. 10. Oui, Monsieur, elle a des parents et des amis. 11. A-t-elle une robe neuve et de vieux souliers? 12. Elle a de vieux souliers et une vieille robe. 13. Votre frère n'a-t-il pas un bel habit ? (R. 6.) 14. Il a un bel habit et une bonne eravate. 15. Avez-vous de bonne viande, Monsieur? 16. J'ai de la viande excellente. 17. Cette viande-ci est-elle meilleure que celle-là P 18. Celle-ci est meilleure que celle-là. 19. Votre ami a-t-il le bel encrier de porcelaine? 20. Son encrier est beau, mais il n'est pas de porcelaine. 21. Quelqu'un a-t-il faim? 22. Personne n'a faim. 23. Les généraux sont-ils ici ? 24. Les généraux et les maréchaux sont ici. 25. J'ai vos parasols et vos parapluies, et ceux de vos enfants. EXERCISE 20. 1. Is your little sister pleased? 2. Yes, Madam, she is pleased. 3. Is that little girl handsome? 4. That little girl is not handsome, but she is good. 5. Have you good cloth and good silk? 6. My cloth and silk are here. 7. Is your sister happy? 8. My sister is good and happy. 9. Has that physician's sister friends? 10. No, Madam, she has no friends. 11. Is your meat good? 12. My meat is good, but my cheese is better. 13. Has the bookseller a handsome china inkstand? 14. He has a fine silver inkstand and a pair of leather shoes. 15. Have you my silk parasols ? 16. I have your cotton umbrellas. 17. Is your brother's coat handsome? 18. My you relations and friends? 20. I have no relations, but I have friends. 21. Is that handsome lady wrong? 22. That handsome lady is not wrong. 23. Have you handsome china? 24. Our china is handsome and good. 25. It is better than yours. 26. Is not that little girl hungry? 27. That handsome little girl is neither hungry nor thirsty. 28. What is the matter this gold watch good? 31. This one is good, but that one is better. 32. Have you it? 33. I have it, but I have not your sister's. 34. I have neither yours nor mine, I have your mother's. brother has a handsome coat and an old silk cravat. 19. Have with her? 29. She has neither relations nor friends. 30. Is OUR HOLIDAY. GYMNASTIC EXERCISES.-II. RETURNING to exercises which may be practised without the aid of a companion, we have next to mention a class of light gymnastics known as the WAND EXERCISES. These are especially beneficial in inducing flexibility of the shoulder joint, and form a useful preparation for more arduous movements at a later stage of the learner's progress. The wand is a smooth stick, one inch in diameter and four feet long, with the ends rounded. For very young persons a length of three feet is sufficient. The following are among the exercises to be practised with this instrument. 1. Grasp the wand with the hands at either end, as seen in Fig. 5; the attitude being perfectly erect, and the chest thrown forward. Now, without bending the elbows, bring the wand down behind you as far as you can, then raise it again to the original position above the head, and repeat these movements twenty times in succession. 2. Start from the same position, and, after each backward movement, bring the wand over the head and down in front to the knees. 3. Hold the wand over the head as before; then bring it down on each side alternately, by lowering one hand and raising the other, until the wand is in a perpendicular position. Remember still that the elbows must not be bent. 4. Now hold the wand in an upright position in front of you, the hands near the middle, and about six inches apart; the arms extended forward as nearly straight as possible. Keeping the legs and arms stiff, move the wand from side to side as far as you can reach, the upper part of the body partly turning at each movement. 5. Standing erect, with the right hand put the wand out at a right angle in front of you, one end resting on the floor; the body and the wand being both perpendicular, and the right arm in the horizontal position, the left hand resting on the hip. Now, from this position, step out with the right leg as far as you can reach, the foot passing behind the wand. The elbow must not be bent, and the wand must remain unmoved. Return to the erect position, the wand still held forward, and repeat these movements ten times in succession. This is called charging," and is good exercise for the legs and the lower part of the body. 6. Go through the same movements as in the last exercise, with the exception that the wand is held forward with the left hand, the charge being made with the left leg. 7. Stand erect and hold the wand out straight before you at arm's length, in a perpendicular position, the left hand resting on the hip. Now step out with the right foot to the wand, and back to the other foot, five times in succession, without bending the knee. Take the wand in the left hand, and advance the left foot in the same manner. 8. Holding the wand as before, step backward as far as you can with the right foot, in this case bending the left knee; then The same afterwards with the left foot. return to the erect position, and repeat the movement ten times. 9. Carry the right foot forward to the wand, and then backward as far as you can reach, without stopping. Do this ten times in succession, and then the same with the left foot. above the other, the arms straight out, step the right foot forward 10. Holding the upper end of the wand in both hands, one to the wand and the left backward as far as possible. Now change the position of the feet at a single jump, and do this ten successive times. These examples of the Wand exercises will be sufficient. They may be greatly varied, and two persons, each with a wand, may go through exercises similar in character to the Ring movements described in the previous paper. THE DUMB BELLS. We now come to Dumb Bell exercises, which are a well-known and very ancient means of physical culture. The best modern gymnasts, however, have introduced an important change in the practice with dumb bells. Formerly it was the custom to employ the heaviest bells that could be used by the learner, and to put him only through a small variety of motions with them. Now the most approved system is founded on the use of a light dumb bell, with which the pupil is taught to perform a great variety of active and graceful movements, calculated to advance the flexibility as well as the strength of all the muscles of the body. Some gymnasts maintain that the dumb bell should range only between two pounds and five pounds in weight, according to the strength of the learner; but Dr. Dio Lewis, who takes the lead as a recent authority in gymnastics, and who has had a very long and wide experience, is of opinion that bells weighing two pounds are heavy enough for any man, provided he wishes to attain to something more than the strength required for lifting heavy weights. He recommends that, as the dumb bells should be of considerable size, they should be made of wood; and wooden dumb bells only are used in his own gymnasium at Boston, U.S. The handle should be at least half an inch longer than the width of the hand, and of such a size as can be easily grasped, with a slight swell in the middle. Before describing the light dumb-bell exercises, we will, however, say a few words as to the use of the heavier metal bells, with which some of our readers may be already provided. The object of their use is chiefly to strengthen the muscles of the |