greater resistance than if it acted alone. The water thus impinging on the central rod will be prevented from readily uniting behind the other two; so that the vacuum will be filled up, not by the water which has passed through the interstices of the line of rods, but by fresh water which flows in from behind. In other words, when the cilium acts alone, the resistance it meets with is in proportion to the section of the rod itself; but when it acts with its neighbours, the resistance is little short of being proportional, not to the section of the several rods, but to them and the whole space which lies between them. This speculation seems to be confirmed by experiment; for if a sheet of wire

untouched the problem of how the cilia themselves are set in motion. The cilia of the Rotatoria seem to differ from those of most other animals in being under the control of the will of the animal.

When a better appreciation of the action of the ciliary fringes of these animals was attained, the name Rotifera (Wheel-bearing animalcules) was changed into Rotatoria, or rotary animals. Under this name they have been examined, and other details of their structure show them to be much more highly organised than the simple Protozoa, which inhabit the same waters, feed upon similar food, and are moved by a like agency.

They

gauze be passed rapidly enough through the water, it is resisted with almost as great force as if it were not perforated. When fine sand is thrown out of a balloon in rapid descent, it appears to fly violently upward, although the resistance opposed by the atmosphere to each particle in relation to its weight is small as compared to that offered by the balloon in proportion to its weight. According to this theory, then, a number of cilia are depressed in concert and so create a wave, and only rise slowly and separately after the wave has passed on, and so assume an erect posture ready to propel a fresh wave at a considerable distance from the one which preceded it. This conforms well to the appearance created by the cilia both when they are used to pass liquid over their surface, and when they are employed as locomotive organs. This partial explanation leaves entirely

have a definite alimentary canal, complete from end to end, and in some this canal is of very complex structure. The animals are transparent, and admit of the examination of their internal organs while alive; and to aid in this examination, Ehrenberg placed some indigo, in an extremely fine state of division, into the water where they were. He had the satisfaction of seeing the little opaque particles moved by the ciliary currents, swallowed, and pass through the whole length of the alimen tary canal, and thus make it more distinct. Immediately below the gullet, in some (as in the Notomata of our illustration), is an enlarged chamber, furnished with a tooth apparatus, which from its internal position is called a gizzard. In the Notomata the dental apparatus consists of two teeth, one situated on each side of a central fixed tooth, and playing upon it as the hammers

of two blacksmiths fall on an anvil. Below the gizzard is a globular or elongated stomach, which is succeeded in some species by a narrow intestine, but in the one before us ends at once in a cloaca, from which the exit is at the forked tail end of the animal. Round glands, supposed to represent the liver, empty themselves into the fore-part of the stomach. From the cloaca two winding ducts pass up, one on each side of these, and doubtless represent the water-vascular system which introduces aërated water from the outside. On these ducts, fastened by short stalks, are some little button-like organs, which are kept in rapid vibration; but their use is not known. The outer wall of the animal is often of an inflexible or little flexible material, which may be called a shell. This preserves the flask-shaped body in its ordinary dimensions, and gives origin to muscles which run to, and can retract into the shell, the disc at one end of the body, and also the forceps by which the animal attaches itself at the other end. The hind-part of these creatures is usually divided into rings, which, together with the structure of the stomach, show an approach to the Crustacean type. We must content ourselves with this short notice of the Rotatoria, and leaving them, return to the next class, which follows directly to the Annelids in the upward direction. If we wished to give to a sea-worm the powers of living in the air, and walking on the earth with as little change in its outward form as possible, we must, in the first place, replace its tufts of bristles by limbs which are directed downwards towards the earth. These limbs must have a hard point, to strike against and lay hold upon the unevennesses of the ground; and in order that the hold might be maintained while the body is being moved over the point of support, the limb must be jointed. Inflexible levers, with fixed points of application, necessitate fixed solid and resisting fulcra and firm structure, from whence the muscles which wield them may originate. Now the class Myriapoda, the members of which live in the air, differs from that of the Annelids, as far as their outward appearance and appendages are concerned, just in the way which these requirements indicate. The outer wall of the body is of a hard, horny substance, which, though not quite so inflexible as the mail in which the insect is encased, is still vastly harder than the integument of the worm. The limbs, also, are jointed levers. Besides these advances in structure, the organs of perception are better developed. The feelers stretch in front of the head, and are long and jointed. The eyes differ from those of insects in being simple instead of compound; but there are many of them gathered into two clusters on each side of the head. might well be predicted that life in the air would require differences in the organs of respiration quite as marked as those in the organs of relation. The tufts of vessels which served as gills to the worms, could not be floated out in the air so as

It

to expose the contained fluid to its oxygen, and they would be liable to be torn or bruised. Hence respiration is carried on upon an entirely different plan, the air being introduced into the body, there to act on its fluid, instead of the fluids being taken to it. In the illustration, we have taken pains to exhibit the openings in the sides or under the animal, by which the air is received into the body; but we intend to leave the full description of these, and of the great system of air-vessels which is called the tracheal system, to be described when we write of the class Insecta, in which it is more largely developed. Another marked difference between the Myriapoda and the Annelids is exhibited in the circulatory or blood system. This system, instead of being an advance upon that of the worms, seems to be a degradation from it; for instead of a closed circuit of vessels which convey the blood in a definite direction, and never permit it to escape from their bounds, we have only a heart stretching along the back of the animal, divided into a longitudinal series of compartments by valves which allow the blood to pass towards the head only, while it is received from the general cavity of the body by slits in the sides of these compartments. Only a few vessels are given off from the front part of the heart to run to the head organs, and the blood is left to find its way back to the heart, not by vessels, but by soaking through spaces left between the viscera.

The class Myriapoda has been divided into two orders, each of which is typically represented in the engraving. The type of the lower order is the Julus. Its body is an almost perfect cylinder. Each ring of which it is composed bears on its under surface two pairs of feeble legs, which are so small as to be

invisible when one is looking down on to the back of the animal, The generative organs open on the under side of the fore-part of the body, and it feeds on decaying wood.

The other order has the Scolopendra for its type. The transverse section of this animal is of oblong form, and exhibits a flattened structure; the broad, horny back and belly plates being joined to one another on each side by leathery side-pieces, on which the limbs are set, and the breathing-holes open. The jaws of this creature are most formidable, and a poison-bag within the body sends a very noxious secretion by a duct to the end of the fang. These creatures are carnivorous, and rapid in their movements, and their generative organs open at the end of the body, being in this respect, as in all others, more like the insects than the Julida.

LESSONS IN GERMAN.-XXXIII SECTION LXIV.-VARIOUS IDIOMS (continued). Umhin (around there) is used only in connection with fönnen, as :— Ich konnte nicht umhin, es ihm zu sagen, I could not (get) around, i.e., I could not help, or avoid, telling it to him. Ich habe nicht umhia gekonnt, es zu thun, I could not help doing it, I could not but do it. 1. Spazieren (to take a walk, to take an airing) signifies, in union with gehen, fahren, reiten, führen, to take a walk, to take the air in a coach, to ride out, or take the air on horseback, to lead about, or on a walk; as:-Gine Stunde des Tages ausgenommen, in welcher er seine Schwester spazieren führt, sißt er beinahe immer an seinem Schreibtische und stutirt, während sein jüngerer Bruder lieber spazieren geht, frazieren reitet, over in Gesellschaft einiger Freunte spazieren fährt, one hour of the day excepted, in which he takes his sister for a walk, he is almost always sitting at his writing-desk and studying, while his younger brother prefers to go for a walk, to ride on horseback, or to take a drive in company with a few friends. 2. Thun (to do) is in some phrases used impersonally, as8 thut nichts, it does or effects nothing, i.e., it is no matter. thut Noth, it is necessary.

3. Behüte and bewahre, or Gott behüte, Gott bewahre, are often used especially in conversation, to denote aversion, abhorrence, fear, etc., and may commonly be rendered, "God forbid.” VOCABULARY. Hin'wenden (sich), to,

Arg, bad.
Ausbildung, f. culti-
vation, education.
Behandlung, f. treat-

ment.
Bemer'fen, to observe.
Beleidigen, to offend.
Bewei'sen, to prove.
Bewerben (sich), to sue

for.

Blid, m. look, glance. Brüsten (sich), to be proud, to show airs Curgast, m. guest (under cure). Danken, to thank.

Entfliehen, to flee. Groß thun, to boast, Entwenden, to purloin brag.

RÉSUMÉ OF EXAMPLES.

Tau'nusgebirge, n. the

no necessities; or, if one cannot by any means avoid having some, nevertheless, at least, not to have more than one is absolutely obliged to have. It causes pain, indeed, for the

Es ist eine vortreffliche Sache, keine It is an excellent affair to have Berürfnisse zu haben; oder wenn man nun einmal nicht umhin' kann, einige zu haben, voch we' nigstens nicht mehr zu haben, als man schlechterdings haben muß. Gs thut freilich für den Augenblic wehe, eine Zuch'tigung zu erhal'. ten, die wir nicht vertient' haben; aber intem' wir uns unsrer Un schuld erinnern, lernen wir schnell das Erlit'tene vergessen.

Indem' er aber also gerach'te, fiche, da erschien ihm ein Engel.

moment, to receive a correo tion that we have not me rited; but while we remem ber our innocence, we soo learn to forget what we have suffered.

While he thus thought, how ever, behold there appeared an angel unto him.

EXERCISE 122.

10.

1. Diejenigen, welche zu viel spazieren gehen, gewöhnen sich endlich an den Müßiggang. 2. Eine halbe Stunde nach dem Essen spazieren gehen ist der Gesundheit sehr zuträglich. 3. In Italien fahren Viele mit Maulthieren frazieren. 4. Man sieht gewöhnlich mehr Herren spazieren gehen, als spazieren reiten. 5. Die Gurgäste in Wiesbaten reiten oft auf Maul thieren auf die Platte des Taunusgebirges. 6. Reisen zu Fuß sind oft angenehmer, als zu Wagen oder zu Pferd. 7. Die Lapyländer fahren auf Schlitten, und bedienen sich der Rennthiere, anstatt der Pferde. 8. Er ver wandte beinahe kein Auge von seinen Verwandten, die er in so langer Zeit nicht gesehen hatte, und freute sich ihrer Erzählungen. 9. Für diesen jungen Soldaten haben sich die meisten Officiere bei dem General verwendet. Ich wandte mich in meiner Noth an meine Freunte; allein, wo ich mich hinwandte, sah ich nur gleichgültige Blicke. 11. Er entwandte mir (§ 129. Obs.) meine Uhr und einige andere Gegenstände, ohne daß ich es bemerkte. 12. Derjenige, welcher mit seinen Kenntnissen groß thut, beweist damit, daß er weniger weiß, als er sich brüstet und andere glauben machen will. 13. Sie werden doch nicht (Sect. XLIII. 4) glauben, daß ich Sie vorsäglich beleitigt hätte? 14. Gott behüte! ich habe nie so etwas Arges (Sect. XIV. 4) von Ihnen geglaubt und glauben wollen. 15. Sie werden bei riesem schönen Wetter doch nicht zu Hause bleiben wollen? 16. O bewahre, ich habe nicht Lust, einen so schönen Tag zwischen den vier Wänden meiner Stube zuzubringen. 17. Gs haben sich mehrere um dieses Amt beworben, und zwar (Sect. XLIII. 4) folgende. 18. Ich kann nicht umhin, Ihnen zu sagen, daß mir diese Behandlung nicht gefällt. 19. Ich kann nicht umhin, Ihnen recht herzlich zu danken. 20. Als ich auf den Wolf schießen wollte, versagte mir die Flinte.

EXERCISE 123.

2. Preserve us,

1. He could not help expressing his censure. O Lord, from sin. 3. I could not help forgiving the wrongs which I had endured. 4. While he said this he sank down fainting. 5. We shall ride slowly to the park. 6. The queen took an airing on horseback yesterday. 7. This merchant boasts of his riches. 8. The Arabian rides on horseback with incredible rapidity. 9. When the knights of olden times rode to war, their horses were armed with a coat of mail. 10. Kings and princes are accustomed to take a drive with six horses. 11. When he could have escaped, his strength failed him. 12. The wood is used for building. 13. He has devoted the greatest part of his youth to scientific pursuits. 14. Journeys through the Rhine valley are more agreeable on foot than on horseback. 15. John leads his sister about the park, while her father rides

on horseback.

SECTION LXV.-VARIOUS IDIOMS-(continued).

Los (loose, apart, etc.), when combined with verbs, has a variety of significations. Its exact force in any given place is best determined by the context, as :-Losbinden, to unbind; losgehen, to break out, to go off; lesreißen, to tear asunder. Ein Gewehr lesbrennen, to fire (off) a gun. Das Gewehr ist losgegangen, the gun (went off) discharged (accidentally). Der Streit geht wieder los, the contest is beginning again.

Traurig, mournful, sorrowful.

Emilie arbeitet so wenig wie möglich, um die Feinheit ihrer Hände zu 1. Der Arzt hat mir gerathen, so wenig wie möglich auszugehen. 2. schäftigt sein. 4. Er spricht so wenig, um keine Aufmerksamkeit zu erregen. erhalten. 3. Die Kinter sollten jeder Zeit so wenig wie möglich unbe 5. Ferdinand ist jezt sehr wenig zu Hause. 6. Auf der lezten Reise hatte 7. Wollen Sie etwas Fleisch haben? ich ganz wenig Gepäck bei mir. 8. Ja, aber nur ganz wenig. 9. Es bleibt ihm nichts übrig, als zu 10. Es bleibt nicht Anderes übrig, Sie müssen betteln, over zu arbeiten. jest handeln. 11. Bon all seiner Habe blieb ihm nichts übrig, als ein Stück Land. 12. Diese Rose blieb allein von allen Blumen übrig. 13. 14. Ich kann diese Er blieb allein von dem ganzen Regimente übrig. 15. Um seine falschen Freunde los traurigen Gedanken nicht los werden. zu werden, muß man ihnen Geld borgen. 16. Gewähren Sie ihm seine Bitte, damit Sie ihn los werden. 17. Jest ging der Spaß von Neuem los. 19. Als der Krieg wieder losging, 18. Der Kalk an der Mauer geht los. zog er mit einem großen Heere in das Feld. 20. Das Gewehr ging los, als er es ergreifen wollte.

EXERCISE 125.

4.

1. The physician advised my sister to stay at home as much as possible. 2. A teacher should always keep his scholars unemployed as little as possible. 3. The orator spoke with great enthusiasm, in order to raise the attention of his auditors. Most travellers take with them as little luggage as possible. 5. Will you have some apples? 6. Thank you, Sir, I have quite enough. 7. Augustus is now very much at home, hence we may go to him. 8. There is nothing left for him but submission to his destiny. 9. I had no other resource left me than to fly from the enemy. 10. Of all his property, nothing was left but a garden. 11. I cannot get rid of my cold. 12. Grant the request of this false friend, then you will get rid of him. 13. Who broke the foot of the table? 14. The servant broke it off, when she cleaned the room. 15. Frederick the Great marched at the head of his army to the war. 16. The gun went off accidentally, or he would have shot the hare.

Spaß, m. sport, joke. Ziehen, to draw.

RÉSUMÉ OF EXAMPLES.

North and the South, 12. The threatenings, as well as the promises, in the Bible, indicate the love of God. 13. The copper kettle has attracted verdigris. 14. The miller has disposed of his flour. 15. The father has confined the dog in his room. 16. The merchant praises the cloth to his customers. 17. Prayer elevates an afflicted heart. 18. The moon ascends behind the chain of mountains, and fills the earth with her mild light. 19. I get into the wagon, you get out of the wagon, and he mounts the horse. 20. The tired riders dismount their horses. 21. Will you take me with you when you go to Germany? 22. I do not think you are willing to go with me. EXERCISE 43 (Vol. I., page 239).

1. Nach Beendigung des Krieges werden die Soldaten abbezahlt werden. 2. Ich werte mit Ihrem Bruder zu dem Eremiten gehen, der abgesondert von der Welt lebt. 3. Der Landmann hat die Früchte des Felde eingesammelt. 4. Die Rürger sind von dem Feinde in der Stadt eingeschlossen. 5. Der Krieg und die Pest haben sehr viele Menschen umgebracht. 6. Der mute Reiter steigt von seinem Pferde ab. 7. Der Kaufmann hat seinen Vorrath abgesezt. 8. Die Sonne geht im Osten auf. 9. Die Sonne geht zwanzig Minuten nach fünf Uhr auf, und geht um halb sieben Uhr unter. 10. Sie müssen Ihre Schüler anspornen fleißiger zu sein. 11. Wollen Sie Ihren Besuch für Morgen aufschieben? 12. Die Magnetnadel zeigt nach dem Norten. 13. Der Schüler hat seine Aufgaben abgeschrieben.

LESSONS IN MUSIC.-XII.
RELATION OF NOTES, ETC.

1. IN pursuance of the plan of the last Lesson, while our
pupils are continuing their practice and study of the three chief
notes of the scale, we shall "revise" and enlarge our previous
Lessons in reference to those points which are capable of being
misunderstood, or need to be more fully explained. We must
ask the patience of those pupils who have put themselves into
our hands, with all good faith, content to learn one thing at a
time, for we have to teach many who cannot understand us,
because they have misunderstood music before. Docility-that
quality so absolutely necessary to the student of any arranged
course of lessons, which develops truth step by step, leads from
the known to the unknown, from the easy to the difficult is too
often forgotten; and, as Dr. Marx says, to punish him for
neglect of docility, the student loses all certainty of success.
The "MOVABLE DOH," on account of the common misappre-
hension of the first foundations of musical truth, and the false
teachings which are abroad, is a great difficulty with some of
our pupils. One of them "proceeded very pleasantly as far as
the fifth Exercise, in which the key-note (or DOH) is G. But
that he could not understand." He says, "In the previous
exercise the notes DOH, ME, SOн, are placed respectively below
the line and in the first and second spaces; but in the exercise I
have mentioned, I find DOH on the second line. Why should
there be that change in the position of the note? And how is
it to be sounded?" The last question is clearly answered in
the note to Exercise 5-"Take a middle sound of your voice
for the key-note or DOH." In the previous exercises a low
sound had been taken for DOH. In the first case any middle
sound, and in the second any low sound, would have answered
the purpose.
The reason of the change of DOH's position on
the staff is, that the staff aims to represent to us height and
lowness of absolute pitch, as well as key-relationship; and as
the foundation-note of key-relationship, which we call DOH, had
before been a low sound of the voice, and at the bottom of the
"ladder of pitch," now that this governor of key-relationship
(DOH) is to be at a middle pitch of voice, it is necessary that it
should be placed higher on the staff.

2. Another correspondent states his difficulty thus:-"The key-note of one piece not being always the same [in pitch] as that of another, we are not able to recognise, with the sol-fa syllables, the same sounds [in pitch] which we sing to them in other pieces. What I would ask, then, is, whether we are always to sing the same sounds [in pitch] to each syllable, or merely to guess the sound of the syllable by its position in relation to that immediately preceding?" Decidedly, you are not to sing the sol-fa syllables to the same pitch-sounds in one tune which they had in a previous tune, unless the key-note (DOH) is the same pitch in both. For we use the syllables to represent, to mind and ear, the key-relationship of notes. And we use the well-known letters c1, B, A, G, F, E, D, to represent their absolute pitch. We hope presently to show that this practice of ours is both the oldest and the best. But do not let our friends suppose that upon any of the common plans of solfa-ing they can associate a distinct idea of pitch with each place on the staff. Take, for instance, the first place below the staff. That place may be filled by any one of three perfectly distinct sounds, by D, by D sharp, or by D flat. Now you may call these three sounds by the same name-RAY, for instancebut they are three most distinguishable sounds still. M. Fetis, the well-known French writer on music, very truly observes, that, a sound cannot be altered or substituted for another without ceasing to exist: DO sharp is no longer DO. It is a mere error so to call it, and it is one of those errors which have tended to render music obscure." Your syllable RAY, then, cannot possibly represent a distinct idea of pitch. It can only stand for an indistinct, or, at best, a threefold idea! Hence the indecision of voice, common among those who pursue the fixed method of solfa-ing.

3. Neither let our friends imagine that, even if they could establish in their minds a fixed association of absolute pitch with each place on the staff, in learning to sing at sight, it is the attainment chiefly to be sought. For, undoubtedly, we learn to recognise a note by the effect which it produces on the mind; and, as was amply proved in our eighth lesson, the effect of a note on the mind arises not, except in a small degree,

from its pitch, but chiefly from its key-relationship. We agree with the learned man and skilful teacher Dr. Bryce, of Belfast, in saying, "It is by no means intended to say that the power of distinguishing the absolute pitch of each note in the standard scale [not including the flats and sharps] with some approach to accuracy is unattainable; nor that, when attained, it is useless. But it ought not to be the first thing attempted: first, because it is not essential either to the perception of melody and har mony, or to their execution; and, secondly, because it will be acquired with far greater ease after the mind has learned to feel the relation of the notes of the scale to one another, what ever the absolute pitch of the individual notes may be."

66 'It is this relation of the notes to one another which constitutes The [pitch] notes F, c', F', A, c', B flat, A, G, form music. melody, not because they are [the pitch notes] F, c1, A, etc., but because they are respectively the 1st, 5th, 8th, 3rd, 5th, 4th, 3rd, 2nd of a particular scale. The procf of this is, that the very same melody is produced by any other notes which stand in the same relation, as for example, by G, D, G1, B, D, C, B, A, or by D, A, D, F sharp, A, G, F sharp, E, which are the 1st, 5th, 8th, 3rd, 5th, 4th, 3rd, 2nd, in their respective scales, and by no notes whatever that stand in a different relation." Some of our readers will understand these remarks better when they see this same phrase (essentially the same, though placed at different heights in pitch) in the old notation. They will per ceive that the sol-fa syllables, which, having taken their pitch from the key-note, represent thenceforth only relationship of sound, remain the same in all three cases. And why should they not? for the tune is essentially the same!

66

r:

"

4. Once more, let not our friends suppose, with the corre spondent last named, that it is necessary to “guess at the sound of the notes, because DOH is placed wherever the key. note is. If your DOH were fixed, and were nothing but an other name for the pitch-note c, as in the French method of solfa-ing, then, indeed, you would have to “ guess at the sound of the notes. For instance, when you saw BAY, you would have to guess which of the three RAYS (abovenamed) it was. But if, on the English plan of solfa-ing, you make DOH the key-note, then RAY is always at one and the same interval from DOH, and always produces a corresponding mental effect. And, as it is by this relative position and mental effect that notes are most easily recognised and most correctly sung, you will soon learn to know and to strike the right sound with a decision and accuracy perfectly unattainable on the other plan, and without any "guessing" at all. As Mr. Lowell Mason says, "Ours would be more properly called the im movable DOH," for it is immovably fixed as the key-note. The other DOH is at all the parts of the scale by turns.

5. We are anxious to carry the perfect satisfaction of our pupils along with us, and must therefore step aside a moment longer to prove to them, once for all, that the method of solfaing with "the movable DOH"-especially as distinguished from the French method imported by Dr. Shuttleworth and Mr. Hullah-is the oldest, is supported by the best authority, and is in itself the best for educational purposes. It seems generally admitted that Guido Aretino, the monk of Arezzo, who in the eleventh century invented both the staff and the use of the sol-fa syllables, applied the syllable UT (for which DOH has since been substituted) to the key-note. (See the Musical Histories of Dr. Burney and Sir J. Hawkins.) Morley, the

first English writer on music, adopts the same principle of measuring interval from the key-note. (See his "Introduction to Practical Music," published A.D. 1597.) We have an old English black-letter Bible, dated A.D. 1629, with Sternhold and Hopkins' Metrical Psalms appended. Here we find the tunes printed over the psalms, and the initial letters of the sol-fa syllables, as then used, printed on the staff close to the head of the notes; and, notwithstanding the curious perplexity which arises from the want of the seventh syllable sI (which we call TE, to distinguish its initial letter from soH), it is perfectly clear that the syllables move with the key-note. The following advertisement "to the Reader" is prefixed to the book :"Thou shalt vnderstand (Gentle Reader) that I haue (for the helpe of those that are desirous to learne to sing) caused a new print of note to bee made, with letters to bee ioyned to euery note: Whereby thou maist know, how to call euery note by his right name, so that with a very little diligence (as thou art taught, in the introduction printed heretofore in the psalms) thou maist the more easily, by the viewing of these letters, come to the knowledge of perfect solefaying: whereby thou mayest sing the psalms the more speedily and easily. The letters be these, v for VT, R for RE, M for MY, F for FA, 8 for SOL, L for LAH. Thus when you see any letter ioyned by the note, you may easily call him by his right name." This old book, circulated and used with the Bible itself throughout the kingdom more than 200 years ago, contains, in fact, a "Tonic Sol-fa Notation!" The perplexity above mentioned led to the common use throughout England of what was called the Tetrachordal System, in which the notes of the scale are thus named: Fa, Sol, La, Fa, Sol, La, Mi, Fa. We saw this recently in a well-known old book by Tansur. Here the syllable FA is used for the key-note, and also for the fourth-of course moving with them. "Look well to your FAS, my boy," is the instruction which many an old sight-singer, now living, received from his father or teacher. This, also, is a tonic (or key-note) method of solfa-ing. The far-famed French writer Rousseau gives strong and most satisfactory reasons for the "movable UT or DOH." (See his "Dictionary of Music," vol. ii., p. 223.)

HISTORIC SKETCHES.-XXIII.

WILKES AND LIBERTY.

ON the 3rd of December, 1763, the Royal Exchange was the scene of a serious disturbance. The people tried, and to a great extent succeeded, to prevent the execution of an order of the House of Commons. Londoners of the better sort encouraged the people, and the sheriffs had much difficulty in carrying out their duty.

The occasion was a curious one. Certain papers were to be solemnly burnt in public by the common hangman. But the people objected to the process, and hence the riot. The sheriffs' folk had lighted the fire in which the condemned papers were to be destroyed, when the populace thrust them aside, and substituted for the papers a jack-boot and a woman's petticoat, which were burnt amid loud acclamations. "Wilkes and liberty for ever!" shouted the people, who, content with having carried their point in respect of the boot and the petticoat, suffered the sheriffs to perform the harmless pastime of burning some files of a newspaper in the bonfire.

The paper thus destroyed was No. 45 of the North Briton, a newspaper which was written and published by the bitterest enemies of the existing Government, the Government of which Lord Bute was the head. Started originally as the organ of invective against the king's favourite ministers, it had on several occasions exceeded itself in the tone and sting of its abuse, and had commended itself, therefore, to the general public, who were heartily obnoxious to the persons libelled. A belief had taken hold of the public mind that the king intended to rule through his "friends," as the trusted statesmen called themselves, that is, through those who aimed at exalting the royal authority far above the authority derived from the people; and they feared for the abuses to which such a system of government is liable. They objected also personally to the chief instrument employed by His Majesty. At that time, there was an unreasoning and violent hatred on the part of Englishmen towards the Scotch as a nation; Lord Bute was a Scotchman, and vulgar prejudice did not fail to impute that fact to him as a disqualification, if not

as a crime. But apart from this reason which was no reason, there were other causes which conspired to kindle animosity against the earl. He was not an eloquent man, not an able man, either as diplomatist or politician-not a man who, by any act of his own, had given warrant for the confidence which was reposed in him-and it was scarcely concealed that the motives which induced the king so to confide in him sprang only from considerations of private friendship. With Lord Bute, however, it is possible the people might have put up, so long as he did not interfere dangerously with the important principles of the Constitution; but he was suspected to be under the influence and dominion of one whom the people wholly distrusted-the Princess Dowager of Wales, the mother of the king. The princess had many times shown herself to be anything but friendly to popular rights, and though her son had been but three years on the throne, the people fancied they detected in his conduct proofs not only of the school in which he had been brought up, but of a continuance of the tutorship. Lord Bute had been under the authority of the princess, the future king's guide and elder companion up to the very moment of his mounting the throne, and had been appointed to the supreme command of public business immediately on his pupil's accession. The views of the princess and of Lord Bute were known to coincide in every particular, and it was said, probably with truth, that the lady took frequent occasion to exhort her friend to continue in their common political faith. The king was believed to be almost wholly under their influence, and when he acted independently it was said that, clearly enough, the seed, sown by the mother and watered by the tutor, had taken deep root.

Lord Bute had many times been burned in effigy, and whenever opportunity offered for a burning but no effigy was available, the people acted the gross pun of burning a jack-boot (for John, Earl of Bute) as the unpopular minister's representative. More often than not, a petticoat was added, as typifying the princess, who was equally disliked. On the occasion mentioned at the beginning of this article, both the boot and the petticoat were destroyed, to the cry, repeated again and again, of "Wilkes and liberty! But why Wilkes?

John Wilkes was the author of the articles in the North Briton which had excited so much attention, and drawn down the anger of the Houses of Parliament. He had ever since the paper started been one of the most constant contributors, and it was pretty well known that all the fiercest denunciation, all the most malignant writing, all the most scurrilous abuse which appeared in the paper was from his pen. At the present day we are accustomed to the greatest freedom in the public press; names are mentioned readily and without reserve, whatever the position of their owners may be, and an editor feels no more compunction in quoting the names of high personages in connection with what he is writing about than he has in naming the most obscure man in the kingdom. But in 1763 things were different. It was uncertain how far the law would hold an editor or publisher harmless who should criticise too freely the conduct of public men; and it was certain, according to the principle of a law which had among its maxims the monstrous proposition that the truth of a libel was the reverse of a justification for uttering it, that, unless the defendant could show he was directly benefiting the public by his publication, he would be severely punished in damages. Writing, such as we see every day in the nowspapers, about public men and public affairs was at that time an unheard-of thing except in Grub Street, or when it issued from some secret printing-press that dared not let its whereabouts be known.

John Wilkes was the first journalist who wrote plainly and at full length the names of the persons of whom he was writing. Before he did so, the practice was to allude to and not mention a public man, and various expedients were resorted to-some ingenious, others coarse and vulgar-for making the allusions sufficiently pertinent to identify the person signified. In the North Briton, not only were the names of Lord Bute, the Duke of Grafton, George Grenville, and other ministers set forth plainly, but even the name of His Majesty was used with a freedom quite unprecedented, and the novelty of this personal style of writing made it only the more stinging. On a calm review of the North Briton articles, at the present day, we might consider them tame, abusive and irritating though they were, beside much that we now read daily as a matter of course; but a hundred years ago the leaders of our party political organs