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THE MODERN GREEK WRITTEN ALPHABET : CAPITALS AND SMALL LETTERS.-PROPER NAMES IN MODERN GREEK WRITING.

configuration of many of the letters, the joining together of every letter in a word, as is done in the Italian current hand, is quite impossible. The rules for the breaks thus occurring can only be acquired by practice, as they are quite arbitrary, each writer joining his letters as best suits the peculiar style of his own handwriting.

We give the three principal abbreviations-viz., σт, ov, kal. Many others are to be found in the correspondence of old men,

it is infinitely more troublesome to understand modern Greek when written hastily and illegibly.

We have thought it necessary to introduce the accompany. ing specimens of Modern Greek Handwriting for the benefit of such of our readers who may be in Greek mercantile houses in this country, or engaged in mercantile transactions with Greek firms abroad. We would recommend those, however, who are not likely to require a knowledge of Greek handwriting for

business purposes, but are merely studying Greek for the sake of availing themselves of the riches that lay heaped up in the storehouses of ancient Greek literature, to use the printed characters; as, although the writer's progress may be in a measure slow, when compared with the rate at which he writes his ordinary hand, the adoption of the ordinary printed forms will impart to his handwriting those most excellent and desirable qualities in handwriting of any kind-legibility, neatness, and distinctness.

The following is the letter as given in Greek handwriting in the preceding page, in printed characters, with the pronunciation under every word:

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Φίλτατε Κύριε

Phil'-ta-te Ku'-r-ie

Σας ζητώ συγγνώμην διὰ τὸ βάρος σας δίδω ἀλλὰ ὧν Sas zee'-to sug-gno'-meen di'-a toh bar-ros sas di'-do al'-la own ἐπασχολομένος καὶ μὴν δυνάμενος νὰ ἐξέλθω ἐκ τῆς οἰκίας e-pas-ko-lom'-en-os kai meen du-nam'-en-os na ex-el-tho ek tees oi-ki-as μου παρακαλῶ νὰ ἐλθῆτε εἰς ἀνταμπωσίν μου σήμερον τὸ mou pa-ra-kal'-o na el-thee'-te eis an-tam-po'-sin mou see'-me-ron toh ἑσπέρας περὶ τὰς ἑπτὰ ὥρας. Μένω Πρόθυμος. hes'-per-as per-ri tas hep'-ta ho-ras. Me'-no Pro-thu-mos.

The translation of the above letter in English is as follows:Dear Sir, I beg pardon for the trouble I give you, but being unwell and unable to go out of my house, I request (you to be good enough) to come to visit me this evening at about seven o'clock.

I remain, yours obediently.

The following are the Greek proper names given after the alphabets of the capital and small letters in the preceding page, with their pronunciation and meaning :

Kwvotavtivos (kone-stan-sti'-nos), Constantine; 'A0ñva (a-the'nai), Athens; Kepkupa (ker-ku'-ra), Corcyra, or Corfu; Zakveos (za-kun'-thos), Zante; Aovdivov (lon-di'-non), London; Пerpos (pet'-ros), Peter; Iwávvns (i-o-an'-nees), John; nipidav (spi-ridone), Spiridon; Marlaîos (mat-thai-os), Matthew; Пarpai (patrai), Patras; Apyos (ar'-gos), Argos; Zμúpvn (smur'-ne), Smyrna.

LESSONS IN FRENCH.-XXXIX.
SECTION LXXV.-REGIMEN OR GOVERNMENT OF
VERBS (§ 129).

1. MANY verbs come together in French without prepositions, which are in English joined by them. Many others are connected in French by prepositions different from those connecting the corresponding verbs in English. No satisfactory general rules can be given on this point. We shall give in Part II. of these Lessons [§§ 130, 131, 132] copious lists of the verbs in general use, with the prepositions which follow them, when they come before other verbs. We have also hitherto noted the prepositions usually placed after the verbs introduced in our lessons.

2. The student will recollect that a verb following another verb (not avoir or être) or a preposition (not en) must be in the infinitive.

cessary.

3. The following verbs, extracted from the list, § 130, although they, in English, take a preposition before another verb, do not take one in French :Aller, 1, ir., to go. Compter, 1, to intend. Courir, 2, ir., to run. Daigner, 1, to deign. *Désirer, 1, to desire. Devoir, 3, to orce. Envoyer, 1, ir., to send. *Espérer, 1, to hope.

Falloir, 3, ir., to be ne- Préférer, 1, to prefer.
Savoir, 3, ir., to know.
*Souhaiter, 1, to wish.
Valoir mieux, 3, ir., to

Mener, 1, to lead, take.
Penser, 1, to think.
Pouvoir, 3, ir., to be be better.
able.
Venir, 2, ir., to come.
Prétendre, 4, to pre- Vouloir, 3, ir., to wish,
tend.
will.

RÉSUMÉ OF EXAMPLES.

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1. Combien de chambres comptez-vous louer? 2. Nous comptons louer une salle au rez-de-chaussée et deux cabinets au troisième. 3. Ne préférez-vous pas louer une chambre-àcoucher au second? 4. Nous préférons demeurer au rez-dechaussée. 5. Ne pouvez-vous rester à dîner avec nous aujourd'hui ? 6. Je vous remercie, je préfère venir demain. 7. M. votre père viendra-t-il demain déjeuner avec nous? 8. II compte venir demain, de bonne heure. 9. Que voulez-vous leur dire? 10. Je veux les prier de me faire ce plaisir. 11. Comptez-vous faire ce plaisir à mon frère? 12. J'espère le lui faire. 13. Préférez-vous demeurer en haut ou en bas? 14. Nous préférons demeurer en bas. 15. Que pensez-vous faire de ce jeune faisan ? 16. Nous pensons l'envoyer à M. votre beau-frère. 17. Ne savez-vous pas jouer du violon ? 18. Je sais en jouer. 19. Mlle. votre cousine sait-elle toucher le piano? 20. Elle sait toucher le piano et pincer la harpe. 21. Ne savez-vous pas écrire ? 22. Nous savons lire, écrire et compter. 23. Savez-vous jouer de la guitare? 24. Nous ne savons pas en jouer. 25. Nous souhaitons trouver un appartement au rez-de-chaussée. EXERCISE 146.

1. Does your brother-in-law intend to rent the ground floor? 2. He intends to rent two rooms on the second story. 3. How many rooms does your son intend to take? 4. He intends to take two rooms on the second story. 5. Does he prefer to live on the second floor? 6. He prefers to live on the ground floor. 7. Does your father wish to come to dinner with us to-morrow? 8. He intends to come to-morrow at two o'clock. 9. Do you prefer to live up stairs or down stairs? 10. I prefer to live above. 11. Does your sister know how to play on the piano? 12. She knows how to play on the piano. 13. Where do you intend to live (demeurer)? 14. We intend to live at your father's. 15. Will you go up to my room? 16. I will go down to your father's. 17. Do you wish to live on the ground floor? 18. I wish to live on the second floor. 19. Is it necessary to stay here? 20. It is not necessary to stay here. 21. What do you think of doing with (de) your book? 22. I think of giving it to my son. 23. What do you wish me to say to that gentleman ? 24. I wish to beg him to do me a favour. 25. Do you wish to send that pheasant to your mother? 26. I wish to send it to her, she is ill. 27. Cannot your sister play on the violin ? 28. She cannot play on the violin, but she can play on the guitar. 29. Does your sister wish to live up stairs? 30. She prefers living down stairs. 31. Will you not do me that favour? 32. I will do it with pleasure. 33. Cannot your brother stay and dine with us to-day? 34. He has promised my father to come and dine with him. 35. Our friend knows how to read, write, and cipher.

SECTION LXXVI.-GOVERNMENT OF VERBS (continued). 1. Many verbs in French are joined with other verbs following, by means of the preposition de, of, where the corresponding verbs in English either take no preposition, or one other than of. Besides avoir besoin, etc. [Sect. XX. 41, the following verbs, extracted from the list, § 132, belong to this class :Achever, to finish. Avoir tort, to be wrong. Brûler, to burn, to long. Cesser, to cease. Commander, to command. Conseiller, to advise. Défendre, to forbid.

Dire, to say.
Dispenser, to dispense.
Empêcher, to prevent.
Eviter, to avoid.
Se flatter, to flatter
one's self.
Jurer, to swear,
Manquer, to fail.

Menacer, to threaten, Négliger, to neglect. Prier, to beg. Promettre, to prossi Proposer, to prepose. Refuser, to refuse. Supplier, to entreat Trembler, to treundüm.

RESUME OF EXAMPLES.

to pay him. 31. I have forgotten to pay you. 32. Do not Pourquoi n'achevez-vous pas d'ap. Why do you not finish learning that neglect to write to me. 33. Tell him to go to my father. 34. prendre ce métier? Do not cease to work. 35. Tell him to come on Christmas Eve 36. I have told him to come the day after.

Nous brûlous de continuer nos études.

Il ne cesse de nous tourmenter. Me défendez-vous de faire du bien à cet homme ?

trade?

We burn to continue our studies.

He does not cease tormenting us.
Do you forbid my doing good to that
man?

Ne négligez pas de lui faire une Do not neglect paying him a visit. visite.

Me promettez-vous de faire une visite à mon ami?

Do you promise me to pay a visit to my friend?

Je vous prie d'aller tout droit chez I beg you will go straight home.

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1. Pourquoi ne cessez-vous pas de lire? 2. J'aurais tort de cesser de lire avant de savoir ma leçon. 3. Avez-vous défendu à votre jardinier d'arroser ces fleurs ? 4. Au contraire, je lui avais commandé de les arroser. 5. Pourquoi a-t-il négligé de le faire? 6. Parce qu'il a oublié d'apporter l'arrosoir. 7. Que désire faire M. F.? 8. Il brûle de continuer l'étude de la médecine, 9. N'avez-vous pas tort de faire des visites à ce monsieur? 10. J'aurais tort de le négliger. 11. N'avez-vous pas refusé de rendre ce service à votre ennemi? 12. J'aurais eu tort de refuser de le lui rendre. 13. Quelle voie nous avezvous conseillé de prendre? 14. Je vous ai conseillé de prendre la voie du bateau à vapeur. 15. Avez-vous menacé de frapper cet enfant ? 16. Je l'ai menacé de le corriger. 17. Avez-vous refusé de vendre des marchandises à mon frère? 18. J'ai refusé de lui en vendre à crédit. 19. Avez-vous dit à mon fils de se rendre à la maison? 20. Je l'ai prié d'y aller tout droit. 21. Vous proposez-vous de venir la veille de Noël ? 22. Nous nous proposons de venir le lendemain. 23. Votre compagnon se propose-t-il de garder le secret ? 24. Il se propose de faire part de cela à tout le monde.

the steamboat?

EXERCISE 148.

1. Have you forbidden my cousin to speak to the gardener? 2. I have not forbidden him to speak to him. 3. Has your mother ordered the gardener to water her roses (roses)? 4. She has ordered him to water them. 5. Has he forgotten to do it? 6. He has neglected to do it, he has not forgotten it. 7. What conveyance will you take to go to Paris ? 8. I advise you to take the railroad. 9. Have you told (a) your son to take 10. No, Sir, I have told him to take the stagecoach (diligence, f.). 11. Is not your brother wrong to neglect paying a visit to his brother-in-law? 12. He is wrong to neglect it. 13. Does not that young German long to read that letter? 14. He longs to continue his studies. 15. Do you propose to trust him with that money? 16. I propose to trust him with it. 17 Do you neglect to reproach him with his faults? 18. I avoid to reproach him with them. 19. Have you threatened to punish your son? 20. I have threatened to strike him. 21. Do not fail to present my compliments to my sister's friends. 22. I will not fail (je n'y manquerai pas). 23. Have you refused to sell him goods ? 24. I have refused to sell him goods on credit. 25. Which mode of travelling do you advise me to take? 26 I advise you to take the railroad.

27. Do you

forbid him to come ? 28. I have forbidden his writing. 29. Have you failed to pay your gardener ? 30. I have not failed

KEY TO EXERCISES IN LESSONS IN FRENCH.
EXERCISE 57 (Vol. I., page 295).

1. Does General N. put on his uniform? 2. He does not put it on. 3. Why do you not wear your black cloak? 4. I am afraid of spoiling it. 5. Do you put on your satin shoes every morning? 6. I put them on Sundays only. 7. It is twelve; does the servant lay the cloth? 8. He does not lay it yet, he is going to lay it immediately. 9. Is not dinner ready? 10. Does the servant take away the things? 11. He does not take them away yet, he has no time to take them away. 12. Do you take off your coat when you are warm? 13. I take it off when I am too warm. 14. Have you a cloth coat made? 15. I have a cloth coat and a black satin waistcoat made. 16. Are you not having your velvet slippers mended? 17. Do you not have a cellar dug 18. I have a large cellar dug. 19. What does the druggist mean? 20. He means that he wants money. 21. Do you know what that means? 22. That means that your brother is angry with you, 23. Have you a wish to put on your cloak? 24. I intend to put it on, for I am very cold. 25. I am going to take it off, for I am warm. EXERCISE 58 (Vol. I., page 295).

1. Otez-vous votre habit? 2. Je n'ôte pas mon habit je le mets. 3. Otez-vous votre manteau quand vous avez froid? 4. Quand j'ai froid je le mets. 5. Votre petit garçon ôte-t-il ses souliers et ses bas ? 6. Il les ôte, mais il va les remettre. 7. Cette petite fille metelle le couvert ? 8. Elle met le couvert, tous les jours à midi. 9. Otet-elle le couvert, après le dîner? 10. Elle ôte le couvert tous les jours. 11. Avez-vous l'intention de faire faire un habit? 12. J'ai l'intention de faire faire un habit. 13. Je vais faire faire un habit et un gilet. 14. M. votre frère fait-il raccommoder ses bottes ? 15. П les fait raccommoder. 16. M. votre fils que veut-il dire? 17. Je ne sais pas ce qu'il veut dire. 18. Est-il fâché contre moi ou contre mon frère? 19. Il n'est fâché ni contre vus ni contre M. votre frère. 20. A-t-il

peur de gâter son habit? 21. Il n'a pas peur de le gâter. 22. L'apothicaire a-t-il besoin d'argent? 23. Il n'a pas besoin d'argent. 24. Mlle. votre sœur a-t-elle ôté mon livre de la table? 25. Elle ne l'a pas ôté. 26. Pourquoi ôtez-vous vos souliers? 27. Je les ôte parce qu'ils me gênent. 23. Avez-vous l'intention de faire bâtir une maison? 29. J'ai l'intention d'en faire bâtir une. 30. Le tailleur gâte-t-il votre habit? 31. Il ne le gâte pas. $2. Qui gâte vos habillements? 33. Personne ne les gâte. 34. Quel chapeau portez-vous? 35. Je porte un chapeau noir. EXERCISE 59 (Vol. I., page 315).

1. What weather is it to-day? 2. It is very beautiful weather. 4. It is cloudy and damp weather. 3. Is it very fine weather to-day? 5. Does it rain much this morning? 6. It does not rain yet, but it is going to rain. 7. Is it windy or foggy? 8. It is not windy. 9. The fog is very thick. 10. How many persons are there in the assembly? 11. There are more than two hundred persons. 12. Are there not many manuscripts in your library? 13 There are not many, there are only fifty-five. 14. Is it too cold for you in this room? 15. It is neither too cold nor too warm. 16. Is there much hay in your stable? 18. Do you remain at home when

17. There is enough for my horse.

it rains? 19. When it rains, I remain at home; but when it is fine weather, I go to my cousin's. 20. Is there any meat in the market? 21. There is much, there is game also. 22. There is veal, mutton, and poultry. 23. Are there not also vegetables and fruit? 21. There are. 25. There are some also.

none.

EXERCISE 60 (Vol. I., page 315).

1. Avez-vous froid ce matin? 2. Je n'ai pas froid, il fait chaud ce matin. 8. Fait-il du brouillard ou du vent. 4. Il ne fait ni brouillard ni vent, il pleut à verse. 5. Va-t-il pleuvoir ou neiger? 6. Il va geler, 7. Il fait du vent et du brouillard. 8. Y a-t-il il fait très froid. quelqu'un chez M. votre frère aujourd'hui ? 9. Mon frère est à la maison, et ma sœur est à l'église. 10. Y a-t-il de la viande au marché? 11. Il y a de la viande et de la volaille. 12. Fait-il trop chaud ou trop froid dans cette chambre pour Mlle. votre sœur ? 13. Il ne fait pas si chaud dans cette chambre que dans la bibliothèque de M. votre frère. 14. Y a-t-il de bons livres anglais dans la bibliothèque de Mlle. votre sœur? 15. Il y en a de bons. 16. Y a-t-il des pêches et des prunes dans votre jardin? 17. Il y en a beaucoup. 18. Restez-vous chez M. votre frère quand il neige? 19. Quand il neige nous restons à la maison. 20. Y a-t-il des dames chez Madame votre mère? 21. Vos deux sœurs y 23. sont aujourd'hui. 22. Avez-vous le temps d'aller les chercher?

Je n'ai pas le temps ce matin. 24. Votre cheval est-il à l'écurie? 25. Il n'y est pas, il est chez mon frère. 26. Grèle-t-il ce matin ? 27. II ne grêle pas, il gèle. 28. Quel temps fait-il ce matin? 29. Il fait un temps superbe. 30. Fait-il trop chaud? 31. Il ne fait ni trop chaud ni trop froid. 32. Va-t-il geler? 33. Il va neiger. 34. Neige-t-il tous les jours? 85. Il ne neige pas tous les jours, mais il neige très-souvent.

LESSONS IN GEOGRAPHY.-XXVI. CONSTRUCTION OF A MAP OF EUROPE (continued). IN our last lesson we gave our readers ample instructions for making a conical projection of a map of Europe; and to enable them to finish the map by marking in the chief geographical features, and cities, and towns of this continent, we commence in the present lesson a list of the names of the principal places in Europe, the countries in which they are situated, and their respective latitudes and longitudes, so that the student may be enabled to fix for himself the proper position of each in his projection, and thus learn geography in the most effective manner possible, while he is at the same time acquiring the power of constructing maps in general.

90

852

80

B

the projection that he has made of a map of Europe, and on which he is desirous of fixing the position of places given in our list. First, a strip of cartridge-paper or thin Bristol board must be taken, such as is represented by ABCD in Fig. 18, and in this an open space, a b c d, must be cut out with a sharp penknife, equal in length to nine spaces of five degrees each of the length assumed in the projection to be equal to five degrees, and just wide enough to include the whole of a strip of the map from north to south contained between any two contiguous meridians, which, it will be remembered, have been traced on the meridian at the distance of five degrees of longitude apart. Having done this, paste at the back of the cardboard a strip of tracing-paper, taking care to strain it tightly; and then place the strip over the projection, so that the line a b in Fig. 18 falls exactly on the line GH in Fig. 17; the line FE in the former coinciding with the line FE in the latter. Now, thrust a drawing-pin through the coinciding points, F, F, in each figure, and moving the strip a little to the right or left, so as to get the meridians of 15° and 20°, or the meridians of 20° and 25°, in Fig. 17, showing through the clear tracing-paper in the position shown by the two thick meridian lines in Fig. 18, trace the parallels from 75° to 30°, and then subdivide the whole, as shown by the dotted parallels and meridians in the figure. The strip of cardboard will turn about the point F as a centre, and on being turned so as to bring the subdivided tracing-paper over any strip of the projection bounded by two contiguous meridians traced on the projection at a distance of five degrees apart, will exhibit the strip beneath divided into spaces each measuring a degree of latitude or longitude each way. By moving the strip of cardboard as required, the position of any place can be fixed on the projeetion with a pin or any sharp-pointed instrument.

70

70

65

65

60

The student must remember that the position of the point (marked м in Fig. 14, page 356, and F in Fig. 17, page 356) from which the concentric aros are described which form the parallels of latitude in a conical projection, varies according to the point where the circumscribing cone is supposed to touch the sphere or the points where it is supposed to enter the sphere. For example, it is only for the map of Europe, or for any part of the zone that surrounds the sphere between the parallels of 35° and 75° N. latitude, that the point from which the parallels of latitude are described can be taken at 5° beyond the pole for projections on a small scale-or, more accurately, at 4° 30' 30" for projections on a large scale; because, in the construction of a projection for any part of the sphere lying in the zone included between these parallels north and south, and bounded by any two meridians east and west, the circumscribing cone on which the portion of the sphere to be drawn is projected, is supposed to enter the sphere in the parallels of 45° and 65° N. latitude, two parallels equidistant from the parallels that bound the zone on the north and south. If the student will take the trouble to draw for himself a quadrant of a circle graduated from 0° to 90° in spaces of 5o, as in Fig. 14 (page 356), and then draw a series of straight lines, like LM, entering the sphere at pairs of points, 5, 10, 15, or 20 degrees distant from each other, as he may determine, he will find that the nearer to the pole are the points in which the circumscribing cone enters the sphere, the less is the distance beyond the pole of the point from which the concentric aros representing the parallels of latitude are to be described, and that this point becomes farther and farther removed from the pole as the points through which the oircumscribing cone enters the sphere approach nearer and nearer to the equator. It is evident, then, that when we are making a conical projection of any portion of the sphere near the equator, or any portion in higher latitudes on a large scale, it would be a difficult matter to draw the aros representing the parallels of latitude from the point representing the common centre of the ciroles of whose circumferences these arcs form a part, wing to the great length of the radii with which the arcs must be described. It would be perfectly practicable, it is true, if we had our paper pinned down at the end of a long table or board several feet in length, and also had a beam compass wherewith to describe the required aros representing the parallels of latitude; but as these appliances are too costly to be bought by any but professional draughtsmen and map engravers, a method has been found by which parallels of latitude can be represented by a number of short straight lines, arranged in such a manner as to correspond very nearly with the circular arcs that would properly represent the parallels of latitude. Our readers shall be put in possession of this method of drawing parallels of latitude when we show them how to make a projection for the whole or any part of the British Isles.

So

45

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35

55

450

H

We will give the reader another method of fixing the position of places according to their latitude or longitude on his projection. Let him take a strip of cardboard similar to that which is shown in Fig. 18, but suited, of course, as far as length is concerned, to the extent of his map from north to south. A portion of the strip of cardboard marked G H C K in the figure must then be cut clean away, the line a K being in the straight line drawn through E from the point F, the centre from which the concentric arcs representing the degrees of latitude have been described, and about which the strip of cardboard must work. Having secured the strip as before with a drawing-pin passing through F, and also precisely through the point on the paper underneath from which the parallels of latitude have been described, let the edge of the card. board, represented by G H, be laid against the central meridian of the projection, and carefully graduated in divisions, each representing a degree or a part of a degree, if the projection be on a sufficiently large scale. Having got a scale of degrees numbered along EG from 30 to 75 (supposing that the map of Europe is the map on which we are at work), which will indicate the latitude of any place to be inserted in the map, by moving it east or west from the central meridian as required, the longitude may be fixed by bringing the edge G K of the cardboard to the required longitude, as shown in the graduated line at the bottom of the map, in which is marked the longitude east and west from Greenwich, and the position of the place determined by making a mark on the paper at its proper latitude, as shown on the gra duated line, G K. In using this method, however, care must be taken to make allowance for the thickness of the point of the pencil or steel-point with which the position of the place is marked on the projection.

35

30

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We will now show our readers a way by which they may fix the position of any place on their projections, according to its latitude and longitude, with great accuracy, and without the trouble of making separate measurements for each place. That this method may be clearly understood, we must ask our readers to turn to Fig. 17 (page 356).

The reader must suppose the figure in question to represent

These methods may be recommended as obviating the nece sity of subdividing the whole projection into spaces of a degree each way, as shown in the centre of the lower part of Fig. 17. The subdivisions of any strips of paper prepared as we have directed for fixing the position of places on a projection accori ing to their latitude and longitude, must depend on the size of the projection, and the length of the line assumed to represent five degrees, two degrees, one degree, or even less, which is takes

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When the positions of the cities and principal physical features, such as capes and headlands, mouths of rivers and mountain peaks, have been marked, the contour of the coast and the courses of rivers and mountain chains may be filled in from a reliable map on a large scale which gives the details of the coastline and river windings. The political boundaries may also be filled in from the same source.

Having given these instructions, we now proceed with our list of latitudes and longitudes, compiled from the best authorities, in order to enable our students to proceed at once to the filling up of their projections. As every place in Europe lies in some parallel of latitude north of the equator, the letter N. for north is appended only to the latitude of the first place, Aalborg; but to prevent errors, the longitude of every place is distinguished by the letter E. or W. placed after it, as the position of the place itself happens to be east or west of the meridian of Greenwich.

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TABLE OF LATITUDES AND LONGITUDES OF PLACES

Briel
Brieux, St.
Brighton
Bristol

Holland

51 53

4

10 E.

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IN EUROPE.

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