LESSONS IN GEOGRAPHY.-XXVI. CONSTRUCTION OF A MAP OF EUROPE (continued). IN our last lesson we gave our readers ample instructions for making a conical projection of a map of Europe; and to enable them to finish the map by marking in the chief geographical features, and cities, and towns of this continent, we commence in the present lesson a list of the names of the principal places in Europe, the countries in which they are situated, and their respective latitudes and longitudes, so that the student may be enabled to fix for himself the proper position of each in his projection, and thus learn geography in the most effective manner possible, while he is at the same time acquiring the power of constructing maps in general. 90 85 809 B the projection that he has made of a map of Europe, and on which he is desirous of fixing the position of places given in our list. First, a strip of cartridge-paper or thin Bristol board must be taken, such as is represented by A B C D in Fig. 18, and in this an open space, a b c d, must be cut out with a sharp penknife, equal in length to nine spaces of five degrees each of the length assumed in the projection to be equal to five degrees, and just wide enough to include the whole of a strip of the map from north to south contained between any two contiguous meridians, which, it will be remembered, have been traced on the meridian at the distance of five degrees of longitude apart. Having done this, paste at the back of the cardboard a strip of tracing-paper, taking care to strain it tightly; and then place the strip over the projection, so that the line a b in Fig. 18 falls exactly on the line GH in Fig. 17; the line FE in the former coinciding with the line FE in the latter. Now, thrust a drawing-pin through the coinciding points, F, F, in each figure, and moving the strip a little to the right or left, so as to get the meridians of 15° and 20°, or the meridians of 20° and 25°, in Fig. 17, showing through the clear tracing-paper in the position shown by the two thick meridian lines in Fig. 18, trace the parallels from 75° to 30°, and then subdivide the whole, as shown by the dotted parallels and meridians in the figure. The strip of cardboard will turn about the point F as a centre, and on being turned so as to bring the subdivided tracing-paper over any strip of the projection bounded by two contiguous meridians traced on the projection at a distance of five degrees apart, will exhibit the strip beneath divided into spaces each measuring a degree of latitude or longitude each way. By moving the strip of cardboard as required, the position of any place can be fixed on the projection with a pin or any sharp-pointed instrument. 70 70 60 165 100 55 55 The student must remember that the position of the point (marked м in Fig. 14, page 356, and F in Fig. 17, page 356) from which the concentric arcs are described which form the parallels of latitude in a conical projection, varies according to the point where the circumscribing cone is supposed to touch the sphere or the points where it is supposed to enter the sphere. For example, it is only for the map of Europe, or for any part of the zone that surrounds the sphere between the parallels of 35° and 75° N. latitude, that the point from which the parallels of latitude are described can be taken at 5° beyond the pole for projections on a small scale-or, more accurately, at 4° 30' 30" for projections on a large scale; because, in the construction of a projection for any part of the sphere lying in the zone included between these parallels north and south, and bounded by any two meridians east and west, the circumscribing cone on which the portion of the sphere to be drawn is projected, is supposed to enter the sphere in the parallels of 45° and 65° N. latitude, two parallels equidistant from the parallels that bound the zone on the north and south. If the student will take the trouble to draw for himself a quadrant of a circle graduated from 0° to 90° in spaces of 5o, as in Fig. 14 (page 356), and then draw a series of straight lines, like LM, entering the sphere at pairs of points, 5, 10, 15, or 20 degrees distant from each other, as he may determine, he will find that the nearer to the pole are the points in which the circumscribing cone enters the sphere, the less is the distance beyond the pole of the point from which the concentric arcs representing the parallels of latitude are to be described, and that this point becomes farther and farther removed from the pole as the points through which the oircumscribing cone enters the sphere approach nearer and nearer to the equator. It is evident, then, that when we are making a conical projection of any portion of the sphere near the equator, or any portion in higher latitudes on a large scale, it would be a difficult matter to draw the arcs representing the parallels of latitude from the point representing the common centre of the ciroles of whose circumferences these arcs form a part, wing to the great length of the radii with which the arcs must be described. It would be perfectly practicable, it is true, if we had our paper pinned down at the end of a long table or board several feet in length, and also had a beam compass wherewith to describe the required aros representing the parallels of latitude; but as these appliances are too costly to be bought by any but professional draughtsmen and map engravers, a method has been found by which parallels of latitude can be represented by a number of short straight lines, arranged in such a manner as to correspond very nearly with the circular arcs that would properly represent the parallels of latitude. Our readers shall be put in possession of this method of drawing parallels of latitude when we show them how to make a projection for the whole or any part of the British Isles. 50 45H 45 40! 35 We will give the reader another method of fixing the position of places according to their latitude or longitude on his projection. Let him take a strip of cardboard similar to that which is shown in Fig. 18, but suited, of course, as far as length is concerned, to the extent of his map from north to south. A portion of the strip of cardboard marked G H C K in the figure must then be cut clean away, the line a K being in the straight line drawn through E from the point F, the centre from which the concentric arcs representing the degrees of latitude have been described, and about which the strip of cardboard must work. Having secured the strip as before with a drawing-pin passing through F, and also precisely through the point on the paper underneath from which the parallels of latitude have been described, let the edge of the cardboard, represented by G H, be laid against the central meridian of the projection, and carefully graduated is divisions, each representing a degree or a part of a degree, if the projection be on a sufficiently large scale. Having got a scale of degrees numbered along EG from 30 to 75 (supposing that the map of Europe is the map on which we are at work), which will indicate the latitude of any place to be inserted in the map, by moving it east or west from the central meridian as required, the longitude may be fixed by bringing the edge G K of the cardboard to the required longitude, as shown in the graduated line at the bottom of the map, in which is marked the longitude east and west from Greenwich, and the position of the place determined by making a mark on the paper at its proper latitude, as shown on the gra duated line, G K. In using this method, however, care must be taken to make allowance for the thickness of the point of the pencil or steel-point with which the position of the place is marked on the projection. #35 30 130 Fig. 18. We will now show our readers a way by which they may fix the position of any place on their projections, according to its latitude and longitude, with great accuracy, and without the trouble of making separate measurements for each place. That this method may be clearly understood, we must ask our readers to turn to Fig. 17 (page 356). The reader must suppose the figure in question to represent These methods may be recommended as obviating the neces sity of subdividing the whole projection into spaces of a degree each way, as shown in the centre of the lower part of Fig. 17. The subdivisions of any strips of paper prepared as we have directed for fixing the position of places on a projection accoriing to their latitude and longitude, must depend on the size of the projection, and the length of the line assumed to represent five degrees, two degrees, one degree, or even less, which is taken When the positions of the cities and principal physical features, such as capes and headlands, mouths of rivers and mountain peaks, have been marked, the contour of the coast and the courses of rivers and mountain chains may be filled in from a reliable map on a large scale which gives the details of the coastline and river windings. The political boundaries may also be filled in from the same source. Having given these instructions, we now proceed with our list of latitudes and longitudes, compiled from the best authorities, in order to enable our students to proceed at once to the filling up of their projections. As every place in Europe lies in some parallel of latitude north of the equator, the letter N. for north is appended only to the latitude of the first place, Aalborg; but to prevent errors, the longitude of every place is distinguished by the letter E. or W. placed after it, as the position of the place itself happens to be east or west of the meridian of Greenwich. TABLE OF LATITUDES AND LONGITUDES OF PLACES Briel Holland 51 53 4 10 E. IN EUROPE. 1. Ανηρ, ανδρος, a man ; γαλα, γαλακτος, milk; γονυ, γονατος, * Knee ; δορυ, δόρατος, & gpear; ους, ωτος, an ear; χειρ, χειρος, a hand. The peculiar forms of these have been already set forth. 2. Γυνη, ή, & married woman, a wife; γυναικι, acc. γυναικα, voc. γυναι ; pl. γυναιξί, γυναικας. 3. Ζευς, Zeus (Jupiter), gen. Διος, dat. Διῖ, acc. Δια, voc. Ζεν. 4. Θριξ, ή, hair, gen. τριχος, dat. τριχι, etc. ; dat. pl. θριξι. 5. Κλεις, ή, a key, gen. κλειδος, dat. κλειδι, acc. κλειν; pl. nom. and acc. κλεῖς, also κλείδες, κλείδας. 6. Κνων, δ, ή, a dog, gen. κυν-os, dat. κυν-ι, acc. κυν-α, voc. κυον; pl. κύνες, κυνων, κυσι, κύνας, 7. Μαρτυς, δ, & witness (our martyr), gen. μαρτυρος, dat. μαρτυρι, acc. μαρτυρα, νοο. μαρτυς; dat. pl. μαρτύσι. 8. Ναῦς (Latin, navis), ή), a ship, gen. νεως, dat. νηϊ, acc. ναῦν; dual gen. and dat. νεοιν (the nom. and acc. do not occur) ; pl. νῆες, νέων, ναυσι, ναῦς ; compare γραus and βασιλευς. θ. Ύδωρ, το, water, gen. ὑδατος, dat. ύδατι, etc. Nom. πολυς, πολυ. πολυ. Plural. μεγας, μεγάλη, μεγα. μεγάλου, μεγάλης, μεγάλου, μεγαλο, μεγαλῇ, μεγάλο, μέγαν, μεγάλην, μεγα μεγα, μεγάλη, μεγα. Κτεις, κτενος, δ, Β. Σταγων, -ovos, ἡ, a. Εθος, -οῦς, το, custom; comb. drop. Σωζω, I save, rescue. EXERCISE 47.-GREEK-ENGLISH. 5. 'O 1 Macedonian. very. Ολιγος, -η, -ον, small; plural, manners, Οφελλω, I nourish, augment, aid. proach, income, Σιτος, -ου, ὁ, wheat, corn. Φοβος, -ου, δ, fear; φοβον έχειν, to have fear-that is, to cause fear. EXERCISE 49.-GREEK-ENGLISH. 1. Πολυν οινον πινειν κακόν εστιν. 2. Οἱ βασιλεις μεγάλες προ σοδους εχουσιν. 3. Εν Αιγυπτῳ πολλη σιτου αφθονία. 4. 'H θαλαττα μεγαλη εστιν. 5. Κροίσῳ ην πολυς πλουτος. 6. Πολλακις εξ ολιγης ηδονης μεγα γιγνεται αλγος. 7. Πραεσι λογοις ἡδέως εικομεν. 8. Τα μεγαλα δωρα της τυχης έχει φοβον. 9. Πολλων ανθρωπων εθη εστι πραξα. 10. Πονος αρετην μεγα οφελλει. 11. Οἱ παιδες τους πράους πατέρας και τας πράξιας μητερας στερ 13. Αἱ γυναίκες γουσιν. 12. Ομιλιαν εχε τοις πραεσιν ανθρώποις. πραείαι εισιν. 14. Αλεξανδρον, τον Μακεδονων βασιλέα, μεγα προσαγορευσι οἱ πολλοι. EXERCISE 50.-ENGLISH-GREEK. 1. Αἱ γυναίκες τῷ κόσμῳ χαιρουσιν. 2. Οἱ Ἕλληνες σεβονται Δια και Ποσειδων και Απολλω και αλλους θεους. 3. Ταις γυναιξιν ἡ αιδως πρεπει. 4. Οι κύνες τον οικον φυλαττουσιν. κυβέρνητης την ναυν ιθύνει. 6. Αἱ σταγονες του ύδατος πέτραν κοιλαινουσιν. 7. Της γυναικός εστι τον οικον φυλάττειν. 8. Γυναικος εσθλης εστι σωζειν οικίαν. 9. Αει εν πιπτουσι Διος κυβοι, 10. Οἱ κύνες τοις ανθρώποις ωφέλειαν και ήδονην παρεχουσιν. 11. Αἱ των μαρτυρων μαρτυριαι πολλακις απιστοι εισιν. 12. Κομίζε, ω παι, την της κιστης κλεῖν. 13. Ω Ζεν, δέχον την του ατυχούς δεησιν. 14. Κάστωρ και Πολυδεύκης των νέων σωτηρες | wine. 3. Much wine injures men. 1. Abstain from much wine. 2. Bad men delight in much ησαν. 15. Γυναικι πασῃ κόσμον ἡ σιγη φερει. 16. Οἱ Αιθίοπες 4. Kings have great incomes. 5. The income of the kingdom is great. 6. Egypt has την τρίχα μελαίναν εχουσιν. 17. Ω γυναι, σωζε την οικιαν. 18. much corn. 7. Many have much wealth, but little understanding. Τα κτενι τας τρίχας κτενιζομεν. 19. Λιακος τας Αίδου κλεῖς 8. Strive after mild manners. 9. The manners of the women φυλάττει. eze mild. 10. (There) is beauty in (to) mild manners. 11. Alexander, the king of the Macedonians, is often called the Great. EXERCISE 48.-ENGLISH-GREEK. 1. Ornament becomes a woman. 2. It is the business of women to guard the house. 3. They bring the keys of the house. 4. The koys of the house are brought to the mother. 5. The Athenians had (to the Athenians were) many ships. 6. Jupiter had (to Jupiter were) many temples. 7. The fish emerge out of the water. 8. The steersman guides the ship. 9. The ship is guided by the steersman. 10. You worship Jupiter and Apollo. IRREGULAR ADJECTIVES. There also some irregular adjectives, the forms of which I must set before you-such as πράος, πραεία, πραν, soft; πολυς, πολλή, πολυ, much, pl. many; μέγας, μεγάλη, μεγα, great—as follow: THE SECOND DECLENSION CONTRACTED. A deviation from the usual form of the Secord Declension may here claim the student's attention. A few substantives in which an o or an e stands before the case-endings undergo contraction. By contraction is meant the blending of two vowels into a diphthong, or some other equiva lent. The student must learn both the uncontracted and the contracted forms, first horizontally, as πλους, πλοῦς; πλοου, πλοῦ etc.; and then perpendicularly, as πλους, πλέον, πλου, που tracted, and πλοῦς, πλοῦ, πλῷ, contracted. Thus are declined ὁ πλοος, a sailing or voyage; ὁ περίπλοος, & sailing round or cir cumnavigation ; and το οστεον, & bone. EXAMPLES OF CONTRACTED NOUNS, SECOND DECLENSION. Uncon- Con- Nom. πλοος, πλοῦς. Nom. πλοοι, πλοῖ. Ν.Α.Τ. πλοω, πλώ. | περιπλο περίπλω. οστεω, οστώ. περίπλοοιν, περίπλοιν. | οστεοιν, οστοῖν. After this manner decline the multiplicative adjective, ending in -oos (-οῦς), -on (-η), -οον (-οῦν), as ἁπλοῖς, ἁπλῆ, ἁπλοῦν, single or simple; also adjectives of two terminations in -oos (-os) and -ον (-οῦν), formed from the substantive voos (νοῦς), the mind, | 23 δ, ἡ εὐνοῦς, το ευνοῦν, well-minded, that is, well-disposed, and from the substantive πλοος (πλοῦς) δ, ἡ ευπλοῦς, το ευπλοῦν, voyaging successfully. These differ from their substantives only in this, that in the neuter plural they suffer no contraction, ending in -voa and -λoa. Decline in the same manner adjectives ending in -oos, and denoting that of which a thing is made, as χρυσεος (χρυσοῦς), χρυσεα (χρυσῆ), χρυσεον (χρυσοῦν), golden. In the neuter plural ea is contracted into â. When the feminine termination ea is preceded by a vowel or p, the ea is contracted, not into , but into â, as ερε-εος (ερεούς), ερε-εα (ερεᾶ), ερεεον (ερεοῦν), woollen. αργυρεος (αργυρούς), αργυρ-εᾶ (αργυρᾶ), αργυρ-εον αργυροῦν), of silver. EXAMPLES OF CONTRACTED ADJECTIVES, SECOND DECLENSION. η. ἁπλοῦς, ἁπλῆ, ἁπλοῦν. ἁπλοῖ, ἁπλαῖ, ἁπλᾶ. Ν.Α.V. χρυσώ, χρυσᾶ, χρυσῶ. ἁπλῶ, G.D. χρυσοῖν, χρυσαῖν, χρυσοῖν. ἁπλοῖν, VOCABULARY. female servant. Και-και, both. Κανεον, του, το, α small basket. ἁπλᾶ, ἁπλῶ. titude, crowd. Αδηλος,-ον,unknown. Θεραπαινα, ης, ή, a| Οχλος, -ου, δ, a mul- cover. Επικουφίζω, I lighten. Ερίζω, I contend, I am in strife with some one. Κατόπτρον, -ου, το, a mirror. Τεγέα, -ας, ἡ, Tegea, Λεγω, I say, I name. Νοῦς, -οῦ, δ, the understanding, the mind, the soul. Ολιγος, -η, -ον, few. Ευνούς, τουν, well- Οργη, ης, ή, anger. disposed, benevo- Ορεστης, του, 8. Μη εριζε 10. Ορεγου 12. Αἱ θερα 6. Συν νῷ τον βιον αγε. 7. Ο οχλος ουκ εχει νοῦν. EXERCISE 52.-ENGLISH-GREEK. 1. The understanding is a teacher to men. 2. The welldisposed friend is honoured (θεραπεύω). 3. Well disposed friends are honoured. 4. To the well-disposed are many friends (that is, the well-disposed have many friends). 5. Abstain from the senseless. 6. Strive after benevolent friends. 7. Bring the bread in a basket. 8. Avoid senseless youths. 9. Senseless youths are avoided. 10. The goblet is golden. 11. Silver goblets are beautiful. 12. Pass life (βιον αγειν) with understanding. 13. Contend ye not with the senseless. Remark that, as a general rule, the subject (or what is commonly called the nominative) has the article, the predicate being without it. Thus, if, as in the last Greek sentence, you meet with a sentence having two nouns connected by the verb είναι, take first-that is, take as the subject that which has the article before it, as KEY TO EXERCISES IN LESSONS IN GREEK.-XII. 1. The earth blooms with lovely flowers. 2. Keep not free from heat and cold. 3. We judge the honourable, not by length of time, but by virtue. 4. Every height in the mortal race is not secure. 5. Do not speak false. 6. Keep from evil gains. 7. Wicked gains ever bring disgrace. 8. Brass is the mirror of beauty, and wine of the mind. 9. Men aim at glory. 10. Men rejoice in glory. 11. The brave aim at glorious deeds. 12. We admire the glorious deeds of men. EXERCISE 42.-ENGLISH-GREEK. 1. Απέχου πονήρων κερδών. 2. Οι σπουδαῖοι απέχονται των πονήρων κερδων 3. Οι σπουδαῖοι ορέγονται των καλών. 4. Μη απέχου, ω νεανια, θαλπους και ψυχους αλλα των πονηρών. 5. Ζημία έπεται τῷ ψεύδει. 6. Θαυμαζόμεν τους Έλληνας τους κλεεσι. 7. Φευγομεν πονηρα κέρδη. 8. Οι στρατιώτας χαιρουσιν εν τοις κλεεσι. EXERCISE 43.-GREEK-ENGLISH. 1. The fishes rise up out of the river. 2. The hunters catch wild boars. 3. All were like corpses. 4. God rules our souls. 5. The vine brings forth grapes. 6. The earth brings forth ears of corn and grapes. 7. The mice fought once with the frogs. 8. The mice are caught in traps. 9. The Syrians worship fishes as gods. 10. We catch fishes with a hook. EXERCISE 44.-ENGLISH-GREEK. 1. Αγκιστροις αγρευομεν τους ιχθύς. 2. Οι ιχθυες αγρεύονται αγκιστροις. 3. Ο θηρευτής ενεδρεύει τους αγρίους σνας. 4. Οἱ βότρνες και οι σταχνες είαι καλοι. 5. Αμπελος φέρει βοτρυας. 6. Τοις βατραχοις ποτε ην μάχη προς τους μυας. 7. Προσβλέπομεν τους νέκυας. 8. Η γη φέρει πολλας αμπελους. 9. Ο θεος βασιλεύει των ιχθύων και βατραχων. EXERCISE 45.-GREEK-ENGLISH. 1. Wantonness produces outrage. 2. Many are our comrades in 3. Wealth sets men free eating and drinking, but few in a good work. from scarcity and want. 4. Follow your nature. 5. The passions of the body produce wars, and insurrecticus, and battles. 6. The magistrates are the guardians of the laws in a city. 7. O citizens, keep away from sedition. 8. Ο men, desire good deeds. 9. The natures of men differ. 10. Many evils spring from arrogance. 11. The gifts of a bad man bring no gain. 12. Character and wealth without wisdom are not safe possessions. 13. The fruits of the fig-tree are sweet. 14. The possessions of virtue alone are secure. 15. Many cities have brazen, made of walls. 16. The towers of the city are strong. 17. The towers are an ornament to the city. brass. -EOV, δ, Ψυχή (Eng., Psyche), EXERCISE 46.-ENGLISH-GREEK. 1. Ο πλουτος λύει επανέως. 2. Ήμιν εισ: φιλοι εν ποσει και βρώσει, αλλ' 3. Εν τῇ πόλει ὁ βασιλευς εστι φυλαξ των νόμων. 4. Πιθου, ω νεανια, τοις εν τέλει. 5. Ω παι, ορέγου των καλών. 6. Κτησις της αρέτης εστι μονη βέβαια. 7. Τῳ αστει εισι πολλοι πύργοι. 8. Αγαθοι νόμοι φ ρουαν τιμην τα αστεί. 9. Επου τῇ φύσει. 10. Οι στρατιώται μάχονται επι τη σωτηρία της πόλεως. 11. Ω πολιτα, φεύγε στασιν, LESSONS IN DRAWING.-XXII. THE HUMAN FIGURE (continued). the forehead in the other, with reference to the angles formed by all these lines respectively. Although we are at present attempting only a profile, yet with some additional remarks We now propose to give our pupils some practical instruction (to be made presently), this method of commencing the outin the method of drawing the figure, and hope that from the line may be applied to any other view of the face, full or directions given in former lessons on this portion of our subject three-quarters. We will, then, begin from a, and mark in the they will be prepared to accompany us with full confidence as distance to b, observing the inclination; join these two points we proceed. They will perceive that all we have said through- by a straight line; from b drop a perpendicular line to j out this course respecting the treatment of curved lines, dis- arrange the distance ƒe, and join be by a straight line; from tances, and especially the angles formed by the meeting of lines, a mark the distance and inclination a c. It will be noticed whether curved or straight, have a particular importance here. that the nose rises in the middle at d; observe the distance The rules of proportion, and the anatomical knowledge pre- of d from b, and also from e, and how far it departs from the viously acquired, must now be called into service; and we straight line be; join bd and de by other straight lines; trust that the principles we have given upon the theory of treat the points g, h, and all other extremities of lines, in the the figure will have been carefully studied, so that the con- same way. When the whole is satisfactorily arranged, faint fidence hoped for may be well supported by the knowledge it, and carefully, with the points and lines as guides, draw the obtained; afterwards we feel assured the road will be easy, contours of each curve through the points, as in Fig. 134. and the practice pleasant. We have found from experience We recommend our pupils to copy this example three or four that the readiest way for beginners to understand quickly times, and then apply these principles of working to Fig. 135. how the arrangement of curved lines in conjunction may be ! It will be quite unnecessary to repeat the details of this pro Fig. 133. 2 9 Fig. 134. Fig. 135. best effected, is to treat them, whilst arranging the drawing, first as straight lines, or as a succession of straight lines in the course of the curve, with reference to their lengths, and to the extent and flexure of the curve. Observe how the curved lines in Fig. 134 are first represented by straight lines in Fig. 133. Now, although the object of the pupil is to make a finished drawing as in Fig. 134, yet he must first put it together as shown in Fig. 133. By this method he will not only obtain a close resemblance to the general contour of the line, but also he will more clearly understand the character and intention of the curves in connection with each other, as well as their positions, letting alone the labour saved, and the facility it ensures. Here is the first, and probably the most important step in the executive part of the drawing, wherein most of the difficulties are found that so frequently discourage beginners, and cause them to break down at the outset. Now, to prevent the occurrence of anything so disheartening, let us dwell upon this for a few moments, and endeavour, with minute explanation on our part, and the close attention of our pupils, to go through the construction of the subject (Fig. 133). It is advisable generally to commence from the bridge of the nose, for when the position of this part of the face is settled, we can then better determine the line of the nose in one direction, and cess for each figure, as we trust there can be no difficulty if the pupil will be particular in placing a point to determine every angle as he proceeds-or, in another sense, whenever the outline alters its course and on no account attempt the drawing until this scaffolding of straight lines is completed. The advantage of this method of arranging the drawing will be evident after very little practice. In studying the contours of the curves, almost the same remarks we made upon a former occasion (Lesson XII.), respecting the management of halftints, and the amount of ability and observation necessary in order to do them justice, are applicable here. Our present subject relates to form, the lesson we refer to relates to colour, and light, and shade; yet the same degree of perception and due appreciation of the delicacy of tone and tint is required with respect to the delicacy of form. The slightest movement of a muscle changes the outline, and although it may be even so trivial that the uneducated eye may not perceive it, yet it is the aim and desire of the true artist to mark the fact, and introduce those changes in the outline which are known to be subject to laws depending upon the movements of the body, and the disposition and manner in which the muscles approach or overlap each other. He who can reali the changes in the contour of the body and its parts, and |
