Why a note's standing at a particular interval from the keynote should give it a particular musical effect, we do not know. We can only notice the fact, and make use of it in teaching. There must come to us, along with the actual sound itself, some mental association of the relationship of interval (indicated by preceding notes) which has been thrown around it. The memory of notes just heard hovers around that which we now hear, and gives it its character. Quick succession approaches in effect to co-existence, as is familiarly shown in reference to the eye by the zoetrope and other optical toys. Thus when once the key is established by the opening notes of the tune, it is still felt to be present, as a mental element, with every single note that follows. In a similar manner, the effect of a given colour-the artist will tell us is modified by the surrounding ones, or those on which the eye has just rested. This is a deeply interesting subject, and deserves to be well studied and further explored, especially in connection with harmonic combinations and effects. These mental effects of notes in key have often been noticed in books of science. Dr. Calcott refers to them in his "Musical Grammar." M. Jeu de Berneval, Professor to the Royal Academy of Music, in his "Music Simplified," illustrates them very ingeniously and beautifully. Dr. Bryce introduces them into his "Rational Introduction." It would seem surprising (did we not know how the old notation, with its attempted, but inaccurate, scale of fixed sounds, takes up the learner's time, and distracts attention from the real beauties of musical science) that these interesting facts, so well calculated to aid the pupil, have been so little used in elementary instruction. It is obvious that the moment a pupil can recognise a certain musical property in any note, he will be able to produce the note with the greater accuracy and satisfaction. From extensive experience we have found that infants and persons with untrained voices are able to appreciate these points, and derive constant pleasure and assistance from the knowledge of them. The teacher will find himself well repaid by a most careful attention to this subject. 2. In searching your heart should you find you intend Some good to yourself or another to do, To relieve the distress'd or yourself to amend, Oh! watch the bright time when the purpose shall glow; IF YOU FAIL NOT TO STRIKE WHEN THE IRON IS HOT. 3. Whene'er by a smithy you happen to pass, And hear on the anvil the hammer's loud clang, It In the "second part of this tune notes FOI and TU occur. These notes will be more fully and clearly explained hereafter. For is a note a little less than half a tone higher than FAH. It always follows FAH, and seems to rise out of it. It is called a chromatic or colouring note. Tu is nearly the same sound in pitch, being a little more than half a tone lower than soн. holds the same relation to SOH which TE holds to DOH. It is, in fact, the seventh note of a new key, but more of this hereafter. It is enough for you to notice, now, that it does not follow or rise out of FAH, and that it does not produce the same "colouring" effect with FOI. Observe that TU has the lower octave mark on it. EXERCISE 53.-LATIN-ENGLISH. 1. Omnis natura est conservatrix sui. 2. Mirum desiderium urbis, meorum, et tui, tenet me (desire for, or after). 3. Pater vehementer tuå 4. Ira est impotens sui memoria (thy recollection of him) delectatur. sui (has no power over itself). 5. Sapiens semper potens sui est. 6. Vestri cura (care for you) me angit. 7. Omnes homines benigni judices sui sunt. 8. Vehementer grata mihi est memoria nostri tua, 9. Amicus mei et tui est memor. 10. Pater absens magno desiderio tenetur 11. Amici sunt nostri mei, et tui, mi frater, et vestri, O sorores. memores. 12. Multi vestrum mihi placent. 13. Plurimi nostrum te valde diligunt. In singing the words, be careful to notice the italics and SMALL CAPS which indicate expression. The little mark, like two interlacing crosses, is called a sharp. It raises the note, before which it stands, something less than half a tone. You will remark that there is nothing, in the old notation, to distin-2. guish TU from FOI. Two different things are represented by 4. the same signs. In the next lesson we shall commence an examination of the different notes, with this point in view, and furnish illustrations from the great masters. It is sufficient for us here to request the pupil to read with care, and put to the test, the following remarks: The notes DOH, SOH, and ME give to the mind an idea of rest and power (in degrees corresponding with the order in which they are named), while TE, FAH, LAH, and RAY (in similar degrees), suggest the feelings of suspense and dependence. Thus, if after we have heard the principal notes of the key, the voice dwells on the sound TE, the mind is sensible of a desire for something more, but the moment TE is followed by DOH' a sense of satisfaction and repose is produced. In the same manner the mind is satisfied when FAH resolves itself into ME, and LAH (though not so decidedly) into soн. RAY also excites a similar feeling of inconclusiveness and expectancy, which is resolved by ascending to ME, or, more perfectly, by falling to DOH. Notice the power and vigour given to the tunes GRIFFIN, LEYBURN, and BLACKSMITH, by the notes DOH, SOH, and ME. Sing the tunes over for the purpose of forming an independent judgment on this point. Then, to show the effect of the "leaning" notes, sing slowly as follows:dm: sf:dmst:- I d1 :dis: m❘r: | m : EXERCISE 54.-ENGLISH-LATIN. 1. The unwise man (fool) has no power over himself (impotens sui). The father has power over himself. 3. Virtue has power over itself. Vice has not power over itself. 5. Has anger power over itself? 6. Nature is preservative of herself. 7. The nature of virtue is preservative of itself. 8. No one of you has power over himself. 9. Very 10. A treacherous friend is many of us have power over ourselves. unmindful of me. 11. Faithful friends are not mindful of themselves. 12. Thy recollection and desire of me are very pleasant to me. 13. Care for thee tortures me. 11. Most of you, my scholars, are industrious. 15. Wonderful is the love of self. Certain pronouns in Latin bear the name of demonstrative, because they point out (in Latin, demonstro, I point out; E. R. demonstrate) the person or persons that are intended. The demonstrative pronouns are is, ea, id; ille, illa, illud; iste, ista, Of these, is signifies this or that, and istud; hic, hæc, hoc. approaches to our personal pronoun he, his, etc.; hic denotes this person, that is, the nearer to the speaker; ille, that person, farther from the speaker; iste, that person, particularly when a person is addressed, the second person. From is, ea, id, idem, the same, is formed by the addition of dem; thus, is-dem contracted into idem (pronounced i'-dem), eň-dem, id-dem or ĭdem (pronounced id'-em). To these may be added, ipse, ipsa, ipsum, he himself, that very person. In the following manner decline the : d's: m : dmsr: d D. ei iis (eis) Plural. N. ež eōrum iis Hæc puella, this girl, Addictus, -8, -um, given to, attached to. Auctoritas, -atis, f., an authority. Carmen,-inis,n.,a poem. Credo, 3, I believe (E. R. creed). Diligentia, -æ, f., dili gence. Displiceo, 2, I displease. Elegans, -ntis, elegant. Expete (imp. mood of expeto), seek for. horse. Idem vitium, the same vice. Illa res, that thing. Ille sensus, that sense. VOCABULARY. Ista femina, that woman Iste vir, that man. Istud nomen, that name. Fidus, -a, -um, faith- Sallustius, -i, Sallust, ful. the name of a Roman historian. Firmo, 1, I strengthen (E. R. firm). Hebě to, 1, I grow dull. Ignavia, -æ, f., idleness. Iners, rtis, inactive, sluggish. Memoria,.,f.,memory. Mendax, acis, lying (E. R. mendacity). Placeo, 2, I please. Sevus, -a, -um, cruel. Schola, -æ, f., a school. EXERCISE 57.-LATIN-ENGLISH. 2. 1. Multi homines de iisdem rebus eodem die non eadem sentiunt. Insipiens eidem sententiæ modo fidit, modo diffidit. 3. Ipsi imperatori seditiosi milites resistunt. 5. Virtus 4. Animus ipse se movet. est per se ipsa laudabilis. 6. Sæpe nihil est homini inimicius quam sibi ipse (himself to himself; than he is to himself). 7. Omne animal se ipsum diligit. 8. Carior nobis esse debet patria quam nosmet ipsi (we ourselves). 9. Præclarum est illad præceptum oraculi Delphici, Nosce (know, imp.) te ipsum. EXERCISE 58.-ENGLISH-LATIN. 1. The enemies besiege the city, and endeavour to take it by storm. 2. The deed of that great man is praised by all writers. 3. Cæsar and Pompey are very illustrious Roman generals. 4. To that (one) fortune is more favourable than to this (one). 5. The bravery of that (one) and this (one) is wonderful. 6. The king himself is the general of the army. 7. Not always dost thou think the same concerning the same things. 8. The father and the son pursue the same learning (litera). 9. Virtues are lovely in (by) themselves. 10. All men love themselves. 11. Thy native country ought to be dearer to thee than thyself. 12. Know yourselves, young men. 13. A liar often distrusts himself. KEY TO EXERCISES IN LESSONS IN LATIN.-XIV. 1. The soldiers fight bravely. 2. Do the soldiers fight bravely? 3. Do not the soldiers fight bravely? 4. The Romans fight more bravely than their enemies. 5. Of Greece I think more and more. 6. Dost thou not think much on thy father? 7. We every day more and more 8. Most desiringly thou lookest for the coming of expect a letter. thy mother. 9. The country pleases (my) father every day more and more. 10. Thou art building a house well. 11. Does he build a house very well? 12. The letter is very badly written. 13. Thy words sound -2, f., badly. 14. Slaves think very ill concerning their master. 15. Girls an opinion (E. R. labour more patiently than boys. 16. Very hidden dangers are avoided sentence). with very great difficulty. 17. It is difficult to overcome the Greeks, Tarditas, -atis, f., slow18. The Greeks fight very bravely. 19. Sedition is put down more ness (E. R. tardy). easily than war. 20. The state is excellently administered. 21. He Vita (imp. mood of boldly denies (it). 22. The citizens inhabit the city in happiness. vito), avoid. EXERCISE 48.-ENGLISH-LATIN. EXERCISE 55.-LATIN-ENGLISH. 1. Sallustius est elegantissimus scriptor. 2. Ejus (his) libros libenter lego. 3. Amicum fidum habeo. 4. Ei addictissimus sum. 5. Fratris carmen valde mihi placet, id legere debes. 6. Ignavia corpus hebetat, labor firmat. 7. Illam vita, hunc expete. 8. Hæ literæ graviter me movent. 9. Hoc carmina suavissima sunt. 10. Isti homini mendaci non credo. 11. Huic duci milites libenter parent. 12. Illi viro omnes favent. 13. Præclarum est istud tuum præceptum. 14. Hæc sententia mihi placet, illa displicet. 15. Hoc bellum est sævissimum. 16. Hic puer industrius est, ille iners. 17. Memoria teneo præclarum illud præceptum. 18. Iste tuus amicus est vir optimus. 19. Ista vestra auctoritas est maxima. 20. Hujus discipuli diligentiam laudo, illius tarditatem vitupero. 21. Illi schola est gratissima, huic molestissima. EXERCISE 56.-ENGLISH-LATIN. 1. Sallust is an elegant writer, Livy a more elegant (writer), and Cicero the most elegant. 2. I gladly read their books. 3. His (ejus) brother and friend are dear to me. 4. Thou hast a faithful friend, and art attached to him. 5. My sons have faithful wives and love them much. 6. I am greatly moved by that letter. 7. Thou dost not believe a lying woman (dative). 8. This boy pleases, that boy displeases me. 9. This poem is very elegant, that more elegant. This thy soldier is brave. 11. The diligence of this scholar is praised by me the teacher. 12. In this school (there) are more diligent scholars than in yours. VOCABULARY. Imperator, -ōris, m., a commander (E. R. emperor). Inimicus, -a, -um, unfriendly (B. R. enmity). Laudabilis, -e, laudable. praiseworthy. Meritum, -i, n., -um, merit. belonging Modo-modo, nownow, at one time-at another. Delphicus, -a, Delphian, illus to the oracle at Delphi, in Northern Greece. Diffido, 3, I distrust (E. R. diffident). Expugno, 1, I take by storm. Factum, -i, n., a deed. Fido, 3, I trust. Fortuna, -æ, f., fortune. a 1. Facile ne bellum sedatur? 2. Difficillime bellum sedatur. 3 Pugnat fortiter. 4. Fortius pugnant. 5. Fortissime pugnant Græci 6. Magnopere expectas veris adventum. 7. A pueris puellisque omnibus cupidissime expectatur adventus veris. 8. Epistolam tuam in dies plus plusque expectant. 9. Male mala verba sonant. 10. Milites magis atque magis dimicant. 11. Occulta non facile evitantur. 12. Matres patientius quam filiæ laborant. 13. Seditio feliciter sedatur. 14. Pulchre literas scribit. 15. Romani fortius quam Græci pugnant. 16. Rus animum meum maxime delectat. 17. Multum animus ne tuus delectatur a rure? 18. Maxime cogito de domo mea, de fratribus, et de sororibus. 19. Pessime administratur civitas a Romanis. EXERCISE 49.-LATIN-ENGLISH. 1. I sing. 2. Thou shoutest. 3. The friend calls. 4. We narrate. 5. You dance. 6. Brothers labour. 7. I weep. 8. Thou laughest. 9. Brother grieves. 10. We teachers teach, you scholars learn. 11. I play. 12. Thou learnest. 13. Sister paints with the needle (that is, embroiders). 14. We write. 15. You read. 16. Brothers paint. 17. I leap. 18. Thou strikest. 19. The boy sleeps. 20. We masters instruct you, O pupils. 21. You, O good pupils, attentively hear our precepts. 22. Virtues are equal among themselves (one to another). 23. To command one's self is the greatest command. 24. An angry man is not his own master. 25. The pursuit (handling) of letters is salutary to us. 26. Truth is always pleasant to me. EXERCISE 50.-ENGLISH-LATIN. 1. Ego narro. 2. Tu saltas. 3. Frater laborat. 4. Nos cantamus. 5. Vos laboratis. 6. Amici saltant. 7. Ego, præceptor, doceo; vos, O discipuli, discitis. 8. Nos dolemus. 9. Tu pingis. 10. Juvenes feriunt. 11. Nos præceptores non tentamus docere vos, O irati pueri. 12. Boni discipuli debent sibi imperare. 13. Imperare sibi est virtus. 14. Difficile est irato sibi imperare. 15. Irati non sunt apud se. Imperium semper est tibi gratum. 17. Nonne gratum nobis est imperium? 18. Tibi haud mihi grata est veritas. 19. Veritas est salutaris tibi, mihi, nobis, omnibus. EXERCISE 51.-LATIN-ENGLISH. 16. 1. Vices creep on us under the name of virtues. 2. We favour you, you do not favour us. 3. Thou lovest me, I love thee. 4. My life is dear to me, thine (is dear) to thee. 5. Virtue always shines of itself (by its own light). 6. The song delights us. 7. Our parents are loved by us. 8. O my son, thou never obeyest me! 9. Our brother loves me and thee. 10. I am nearest to myself. 11. Thou well commandest thyself. 12. Virtue is cultivated on its own account (for itself). Virtue is sought for, for its own nature (for its own qualities). Oraculum, i, n., an Virtus,-tūtis,f.,bravery. The citizens fight for their own heads (lives). 15. The sage carries oracle. with him all his property. 16. We rejoice with you on the return of Nosco, 3, I become acquainted with. Obsideo, 2, I besiege. Opus, operis, n., a work (E. R. operative). (our) father. 17. Thou well contendest with thyself. 18. God is with thee. 19. Often the mind is in discord (disagrees with itself). 20. The enemies fight earnestly with us. 21. Thy speech is not in unison with thyself. EXERCISE 52.-ENGLISH-LATIN. 1. Omnia mea mecum porto. 2. Secumne omnia sua portant sapientes? 3. Tu me amas, ego te amo. 4. Vita tua mihi est cara, mea tibi. 5. Mali semper secum discordant. 6. Tractatio literarum gratissima est nobis. 7. Amant sese homines. 8. Amantne sese mulieres ? 9. Pessime amant sese mali. 10. Per se pulchra est virtus. 11. Propter te ipsum te amo. 12. Mea patria gratior est mihi quam za tibi. LESSONS IN BOTANY.-XV. SECTION XXVII.-CRUCIFERÆ OR BRASSICACEE, THE CRUCIFEROUS (CROSS-BEARING) OR CABBAGE TRIBE. ALREADY, in an early lesson, we have had occasion to make a statement respecting the cross-bearing flowers that we hope the reader has not forgotten. We mentioned that a strange plant being referred to this natural order might at once be considered harmless, and probably very good to eat. Let us now go a little more minutely into the characteristics of these cross-bearers. They are these: Sepals, four, free; petals, hypogynous, four, free, cruciform; stamens, six, tetradynamous; ovary, bilocular, placenta parietal; fruit, ordinarily a pod; seed, dicotyledonous. Let us now proceed to the application of such of the preceding characters as may be necessary. Firstly, the propriety of the term cruciferous will be rendered evident from an examination of the representation of the flower of a plant termed Shepherd's Purse, one of the cruciferous family (Fig. 147). This same individual, the Shepherd's Purse, shall also serve to teach us yet something more regarding the peculiarities of the natural order Crucifera. Let us now examine a branch of the plant (Fig. 146). Directing our attention at first to the flowers, we find them to be arranged after the manner of a raceme, and totally devoid of bracts. This absence of bracts pervades the whole natural order Crucifera, which is the only natural order in which the bracts are uniformly absent. Hence by this sign a cruciferous vegetable may be as readily known as by the structure of the flower; indeed, the sign of absence of bracts has a wider sphere of application. The flowers of the Cruciferæ are at the best very small, but perhaps they might not yet have fully developed themselves at the period of observation. Consequently, if the cruciferous shape of flowers were the only guide, the student might not be able to wait for the sign of discrimination; whereas by noticing the absence of bracts, he would know the plant under consideration to be cruciferous, and knowing this, he would be assured of its harmlessness at least. Most probably it would be good to eat, either in the form of salad or cooked. The advantages of being thus able to refer an unknown plant to a harmless and useful order we need not specially indicate. They will be self-apparent. Let the reader consider the bearing of this anecdote. It is related that, when during Anson's voy ages his crews disembarked in unknown places, the surgeon, fearful of poisons, would not suffer them to partake of any vegetables except grasses, notwithstanding the scurvy was making great ravages amongst them. Now the reader must be informed, if he does not already know, that the scurvy is a disease almost entirely dependent upon too exclusive a diet of salt meat, without accompaniment of vegetables, more especially vegetables of succulent character. Formerly the scurvy made great ravages in our navy; at present it is scarcely known, having been banished, partly by the administration of fresh preserved provisions, but chiefly by the administration of lime-juice, which now constitutes a portion of the rations of every sailor. If 146. SHEPHERD'S PURSE, | Anson's crew had been provided with fresh vegetables to eat, their scurvy would have been cured; and they knew it. How great, then, must have been the fear of the surgeon, and how valuable is the knowledge of Botany! Returning to our investigation of the distinctive signs by which cruciferous plants may be known, we shall merely call attention to the fact that each flower has six stamens, of which two are more spreading and shorter than the others; hence the denomination Tetradynamia (or four-powered) in the Linnæan or artificial classification, and this is another essential characteristic of cruciferous plants. The other characteristic signs being for the most part microscopic, we pass them over without notice. The Crucifera are dispersed all over the surface of the globe; the greater number, however, inhabit the northern temperate zone, more especially of the Old World; between the tropics they are rare, and when they exist, are found on mountain elevations; beyond the Tropic of Capricorn they become less fre- 147. FLOWER OF THE SHIP quent, even more so than beyond the Tropic of Cancer. HERD'S PURSE, ENLARGED. When we mention that cabbages, sea-kale, mustard, cress, and radishes belong to this order, we shall have stated enough to demonstrate the utility of its species. When we state again that wall-flowers (Fig. 149) and stocks are cruciferous plants, the reader will see that utility is not the only claim which the Crucifera present to our notice. The Crucifera are imbued with an acrid volatile principle dispersed throughout all their parts, and frequently allied with sulphur. To this volatile principle cruciferous plants owe their piquancy and their peculiar odour, which, after putrefaction, is ammoniacal; thus proving the Crucifera to contain the simple body, nitrogen, ammonia being a compound of nitrogen with hydrogen. In many species of Crucifera there exists in connection with the odorous principle also a bitter material and a fixed oil; the latter is chiefly developed in the seed. The active principles of annuals belonging to this order reside in the leaves, those of perennials in the root. Certain species, the leaves of which are inoperative, produce very acrid seeds. Many Crucifera grow mild by cultivation, which augments their amount of sugar and mucilage. The anti-scorbutic properties of many Crucifera have been known from times of great antiquity; the species which possesses the greatest fame in this respect being the Scurvy Grass (Cochlearia Officinalis), a drawing of which is given in Fig. 148. SECTION XXVIII.-PASSIFLORACEA, OR THE PASSIONFLOWER TRIBE. The beautiful Passion-flower, now so common in English gardens, is a native of the forests of Central America, where it grows on large stems which hang like festoons from the boughs of forest trees, interweaving them with a network of gorgeous leaves and flowers. The term Passion-flower was applied by the Spaniards, owing to the supposed resemblance presented in various parts of the floral whorls to the accessories of Christ's crucifixion. The conspicuous ray-like appendages, sprinkled with blood-like spots, were compared to the crown of thorns: the stigma is cruciform; nor were the ardent Spaniards slow to discover other fancied resemblances, which eyes less prejudiced than their own in favour of a dominant idea can scarcely recognise. Characteristics: Calyx tubular, urceolate (like a pitcher, from the Latin urceus, a pitcher) five-parted, ordinarily furnished at its throat with one or more series of filaments. Corolla of fire petals. Stamens five, hypogynous, adherent to the support of the ovary. Ovary stipulate superior, one-celled; three or five placentæ; three or four styles terminated by club-like stigmas; ovules reflexed; fruit, a berry, indehiscent (not splitting), or capsular, three or five valved; seed, dicotyledonous; embryo straight, central. We shall be able to individualise the Passion-flower order are not green, but coloured like the petals of most flowers. We have already stated, however, that amongst the other transformations of parts which occasionally ensue, the transformation of the calyx into the appearance of a corolla is not unfre- in 150 149 Greek word eidos (ei-dos), likeness, which word, in composition, changes eid into oid. Directing the eye to the lower part of the sepals, they will be observed to rise from a shallow cup-like body, to which also are attached the petals and other portions of the flower. As regards the petals themselves, they are coloured similarly to the inside of the sepals, and are of the 150. TRANSVERSE SECTION OF OVARY 148. SCURVY GRASS (COCHLEARIA OFFICINALIS). 149. THE WALL-FLOWER. OF PASSION-FLOWER. 151. COLUMN OF PASSION-FLOWER. 152. SCARLET PASSION-FLOWER (PASSIFLORA AMABILIS). occur, that mere green colour is not to be regarded as more than a collateral circumstance. The external floral whorl is always considered by botanists as a calyx, whatever its colour may be. That colour is often very brilliant, as in the fuchsia, for example, where the gay-looking part of the flower is not corolla or aggregation of petals, but calyx, or aggregation of sepals. This assumption by the parts of the calyx of the appearances usually presented by the corolla gives rise to what botanists term a petaloid calyx. The term petaloid means resembling a petal; the termination oid being derived from the same colour on both sides, by which circumstance they may be distinguished from the sepals, as also by the circumstance of their not having a little horn, which may be found on examination springing from each of the sepals. We next arrive at the filamentary rays which the imaginative Spaniards compared to the crown of thorns! What are those rays? They are petals so modified in shape that they almost present the appearance of stamens. This modification, and yet more frequently its converse, stamens modified into petals, is not at all unfrequent in many flowers, as the result of cultivation. In the Passionflower tribe, however, it exists as the usual condition of the flower. Let us now proceed to examine the reproductive, or fruit and seedproducing portions of the flower, which are very peculiar. We have already mentioned a cup-like body in connection with the structure of a Passion-flower. It corresponds with the part lettered c in Fig. 151. From the centre of this cup a column-like body is observed rising aloft in the centre of the flower, to which certain appendages are attached. The nature of these appendages will at once be obvious. Externally, we easily recognise five anthers, and internally we recognise the club-headed styles; but looking again at the stamens, we search in vain for the filaments, which are, in fact, united to the stalk which elevates the ovary, |