itself is obtained from a thick green mucus that surrounds the by homœopathic practitioners. This belongs to a different natural order, namely, Dioscoreaceœ. It has long, will be seen, are alternate, which, in this family, constitutes an important generic distinction. Let us now observe the flowers (Fig. 159). We find them to consist of a calyx in one piece or sepal; hence the flower is monosepalous. We find, moreover, that the calyx is furnished with five tooth-like projections, which would have resulted in the generation of five different sepals, had the progress of indentation gone far enough. 153. ELATERIUM-LIKE GOURD (CUCUMIS MOMORDICA). twining stems and bunches of red berries; but its leaves, although they are cordate, are not divided into lobes like those of the common bryony. They are of a dark-green colour, almost approaching to black. SECTION XXX.-SOLANACEA, OR THE NIGHTSHADE TRIBE. Characteristics: Calyx free; corolla regular, in five divisions; stamens inserted on the tube of the corolla, their number equal to that of the divisions, and alternating with them. Anthers bursting longitudinally, rarely by pores, at the apex; ovary two-celled; style continuous; stigma simple; pericarp with two, four, or many cells; either a capsule with a double dissepiment parallel with the valves, or a berry with placentæ adhering to the dissepiment. Herbaceous plants or shrubs; leaves alternate, undivided, or lobed; inflorescence variable, often axillary; pedicles without bracts. In the above description of the characters of plants belonging to the tribe Solanacea, the term "dissepiment," from the Latin di or dis, apart, and sepes, a hedge, is applied to the partitions that divide the cells of the ovary from one another. The corolla, also, consists of one part or petal; hence the flower is said to be monopetalous. Our second diagram (Fig. 158) represents one of these flowers cut open in such a manner that the mode of insertion of the stamens is evident. Like the calyx, the corolla is also five dentated. Remark, now, how the stamens are attached. They spring from between the dentated processes or lobes of the corolla; and this is invariable for all the genera and spe cies of the Solanacea, serving to distinguish their members from those of the Primulacea, or the primrose tribe. If the reader examine the construction of a primrose, he will find what we say to be true. If we now proceed from the flower to the ovary, and transversely divide it, two separate cells may be observed, each of which contains a number of ovules (Fig. 160). This ovary, when ripe, constitutes the fruit, a small two-celled black berry. 154. THE MANDRAKE (MANDRAGORA OFFICINALIS.) 155, FRUIT OF THE If a seed be transversely divided, the embryo will be observed coiled up within it, and is therefore said by botanists to be curved (Fig. 161). Finally, the most essential characteristics of the Nightshade tribe are superior twocelled ovary, regular flower, and alternate leaves. The latter pe culiarity distinguishes them from the Gentian tribe, with which their appearance in other respects corresponds. Numbers of the numerous family of the Solanaceae belong to the tropics, very few species being natives of temperate regions, and none existing in either northern or southern frigid zone. Nearly all, if not all, the species of the Solanaceae contain a poison of a narcotic kind. Even that useful solanaceous plant, the The fruits are noto When we inform the reader that the nightshade, henbane, tobacco, stramonium, and the mandrake plant, all belong to this natural | potato, is not entirely free from poison. order, we state enough to convey to him a general impression riously poisonous, and even the juice of raw potatoes is inconcerning the Solanaceae. It is a highly dangerous family, jurious. Nevertheless, the potato, as we all know, is highly although one that ministers to our sustenance in the potato, nutritious. This arises from the starch and gluten which and to the comfort of many in the tobacco. it contains being mingled with so little of the poisonous principle that the latter is destroyed by the cooking process to which potatoes are subjected before being eaten. The egg-plant is one of the Solanaceae, so in like manner is the tomata; both are occasionally eaten; the latter, indeed, frequently; by the The best flower the reader can select for making himself acquainted with the characteristics of the Solanaceae will be that of the common deadly nightshade. Let it be procured with leaves attached, for they merit observation. The leaves, it Spaniards, almost universally. They are both, however, injurious if eaten raw. We may here remark, in connection with the potato, that the vegetable substance, starch, is largely diffused throughout many poisonous plants, and, when separated from them, it is invariably harmless. Of this we have a remarkable example in tapioca, which is nothing else than the baked starch extracted from the large fleshy roots of the Jatropha Manihot. The juice of the tree is so poisonous that arrows are poisoned with it; nevertheless, tapioca is a delicate article of food. The common deadly nightshade (Atropa Belladonna) grows in shady places, and is an elegant, though dangerous-looking plant. The belladonna bears a cherrylike fruit, which has been sometimes incautiously eaten by children, and too often attended with a fatal result. In 1793, some orphans, brought up at the Hospice de la Piété, at Paris, were employed in weeding a botanical garden. They happened to be attracted by the temptinglooking fruit of a belladonna plant, of which they ate a considerable quantity. Fourteen of those unfortunate children died in consequence of this only a very few hours afterwards. This fact justifies the generic name Atropa, from Atropos, one of the Fates, who was supposed to cut the thread of life. The specific name, Belladonna, signifies beautiful lady, and is dependent on the circumstance that the Italian ladies use the distilled water of this plant as a cosmetic. They fancy it improves their complexions. The active principle of belladonna chiefly resides in the leaves and in the root. Chemists term it Atropine or Atropia. exhales a repulsive odour. Its corolla is palish-yellow, veined with purple. The Hyoscyamus, or henbane, owes its narcotic properties to the presence of a peculiar alkali. The action of henbane is far less powerful than that of belladonna; nevertheless, it may cause death if eaten. A German physician relates that, on a certain occasion, the Benedictine monks of the convent of Rhinon were presented with a salad in which the sliced root of chicory, as was thought, had been placed. Instead, however, of chicory, the root was of henbane. After the repast, the monks went to bed. Symptoms of poisoning soon commenced; the monks were all stupefied. The time for matins or morning prayers arrived, and one monk was so fast asleep that his fellows supposed him to be dying, and under this impression administered to him extreme unction. The other monks went to chapel, but they had much better have stayed away; some of them could not even open their eyes, much less read. The vision of others was so disordered that they thought insects were crawling over their books, and employed themselves in blowing and brushing the intruders off. Others, instead of praying, uttered nonsense. In the end, all the monks got well, even the one supposed to be dead; but one poor individual, a tailor, could not thread his needle for a long time afterwards, so disordered was the state of his vision. Instead of one needle the tailor saw three, and as he could not tell the real needle from its ghostlike duplicates, there was slight chance of threading it. This anecdote makes known better than any formal description the physiological action of henbane. 156. SNAKE GOURD (TRICHOSANTHES COLUBRINA). 157. BLOSSOM OF THE SNAKE GOURD. The mandrake (Fig. 154) is a species very nearly allied to the belladonna; and it grows in the south of Europe, and in dark places. This plant, known and celebrated from times of very great antiquity, was employed by the so-called sorcerers of ancient times to produce narcotism and disordered visions. Its roots are large, often two-pronged, whence the fancied resemblance to the lower limbs of a man. It is supposed that the mandrakes men tioned in the Old Testament were not the same as the plant which is known to us by this name, but that, under this term, reference is made to the fragrant but insipid fruit of the Cucumis Dudaim, which, as we have 159 158. ENLARGED REPRESENTATION The stramonium (Fig. 155) is another of the Nightshade tribe Datura Stramonium). It is an annual, and was unknown to the (ancient Greeks and Romans, although now common enough, having been brought from Central Asia in the Middle Ages by that wandering race, the Gipsies. Its active principle is called daturine, which exists in the leaves and the seeds. This principle OF FLOWER OF DEADLY already said in our is a potent narcotic alkaloid, resembling in its quality and the effects it produces the alkaloids hyoscyamia andatropia,yielded by the henbane and belladonna. It is a deadly poison, and among the most striking of its 160 properties may be named the effect it produces on the pupil 161 of the eye-namely, that of causing it to dilate strongly. Nevertheless, the stramonium, or thornapple as it is sometimes called, like many other poisonous plants, has its beneficial uses. In Cochin China, a decoction made of its leaves is considered an effectual remedy for hydrophobia, the terrible disease resulting from the bite of a mad dog; but this is very doubtful. In small quantities daturine is useful as an anodyne or pain-soother, and as an anti-spasmodic. Persons suffering from asthma have found relief in smoking the dried leaves of the plant, or inhaling an infusion made by pouring boiling water on the seeds or leaves. Great care, however, should be taken lest the patient take an overdose. LESSONS IN BOOKKEEPING.—II. THE PRINCIPLES OF DOUBLE ENTRY. IN our first lesson, we made some general observations tending to explain the difference between Single and Double Entry, and giving some notion of the books which are necessary to be kept in a Merchant or Tradesman's counting-house. In order more fully to explain the nature of Bookkeeping by Double Entry, however, we must now give some general explanations and rules. 1. When a Customer buys goods of a Merchant on trust or credit, he becomes the Debtor and the Merchant becomes the Creditor. The quantity and the value of the goods bought by the customer, or sold by the merchant, are then entered in the Merchant's books to the Customer's debit, that is, on the Dr. side of the customer's account; and the quantity and value of the same goods are also entered in the Merchant's books to the Merchant's credit, that is, on the Cr. side of the Merchant's Account of the Goods. Let us illustrate this rule by an example:-January 15th, 1863, Robert Brown, a customer of (Page 2.) mine, bought of me, a Cotton Merchant, or I sold to him, on credit, 10 bags of cotton, containing 3,000 lbs. at 8d. per lb., value £100. Here Robert Brown becomes my Debtor, and I become his Creditor. I must therefore enter his name and an account of this transaction in my books, in the following manner : January 15th, 1863. Robert Brown Dr. to Cotton For 10 bags, wt. 3,000 lbs. at 8d. per lb...... £100 0 0 In a proper set of Books, kept by Double Entry, such an entry as this would appear first in the Day-Book, or some substitute for it; secondly, in the Journal or Month-Book, or Sub-Ledger; and lastly, in the Ledger itself. In the Journal, the form of the entry would be altered for the purpose of admitting references to the Ledger, and sometimes of combining similar entries together before posting them into the Ledger. If no combination took place, the entry or the preceding transaction in the Journal would be as follows: In this entry, which exhibits the most improved form of a Journal, there are five columns or spaces enclosed by parallel lines: 1. For the Date; 2. For the Folio of the Ledger; 3. For the names of the Dr. and Cr.; 4. For the sum due by the Dr.; 5. For the sum due by the Cr. The use of these five columns will be more fully explained by-and-by. In the Ledger, the form of the same entry would be again altered for the purpose of showing more distinctly the nature of the transaction; and it would be entered twice in a different (Folio 3.) Dr. form, because for every Debtor there is a Creditor, and of course for every Debit there is a Credit. A Debit means an entry the Ledger where a sum is placed to the Dr. side of a customer's account showing that it is due by him, or that he owes that sum to the Merchant. The corresponding Credit is an entry in the Ledger, where the same sum is placed to the Cr. side of the Merchant's account of the goods, showing that it is due to him, or that the Customer owes him that sum. The following are the forms of both Entries in the Ledger, relating to the same Transaction: (Folio 7.) Dr. COTTON ACCOUNT. INTER In the first of these entries, the entry reads thus: Robert | Brown Dr. To Cotton; and in the second, Cotton Account Cr. By Robert Brown. Thus you see that for every Debit there is a corresponding Credit. You see, also, that the Dr. in the Ledger is real or personal, being the Customer; but that the Cr. is unreal or fictitious, being the Goods Account, that is, Cotton. Hence arises the distinction between real or personal accounts, and unreal or fictitious accounts in the Ledger. But let it be remembered that those accounts which on account of their names are called unreal or fictitious, are quite as real and personal as any other, because they represent the Merchant himself; and if the Merchant's name were John Cassell, the actual meaning of the second of the preceding entries in the Ledger would be: John Cassell Cr. By Robert Brown. 2. When a Customer who bought goods on credit, pays the value in money or in bills the nature of the transaction above described is in one sense reversed; for the Merchant is now considered to become the Debtor, and the Customer to become the Creditor. That this is not strictly the case, according to the original meaning of these words, you know; but these words are strictly applicable, if we take the following broad principles of Bookkeeping into account, a principle not only of simple justice, but of stern necessity. It is this: That a Merchant or a Customer is a Debtor for whatever he receives, and a Creditor for whatever he gives away. The justice of this principle must be obvious to every one; in fact, it may be considered as the fundamental axiom of Bookkeeping; but the stern necessity of it may not be so obvious; this, however, we shall endeavour to show. We have said that for every debit there is a corresponding credit; and we may add, that for every credit there is a corresponding debit. Now, if in the Ledger a Customer is debited for goods that he buys on credit, it stands to reason, that for money he pays on account of these goods, he should be credited; and if, in the Ledger, a Merchant is credited for goods that he sells on credit, it stands equally to reason, that for money he receives on account of these goods, he should be debited. It is plain, then, that the amount of the money or bills paid by the Customer for goods purchased on credit, must be entered in the Merchant's books to the Customer's credit, that is, on the Cr. side of the Customer's account; and that the same sum must be entered in these books to the Merchant's debit, that is, on the Dr. side of the Merchant's account of Money or Bills. In this manner is the transaction settled, and accounts balanced between the Merchant and his Customer. Let This entry in the Cash-book would be transferred to the Journal, at the time when it was made up, as follows:(Page 4.) Again, this entry in the Journal would be posted into the Ledger, as in the following examples : Cr. In the first entry here from the supposed Ledger, the form of the account and the entry itself are exactly the same as in the Cash-Book. Nor can this be otherwise; for the Cash-Book is merely an abstraction of the Cash Account from the Ledger as kept on the old Italian system, for the sake of the division of labour; so that the Cashier may have only this Account to attend to in a large establishment; while the Bookkeeper attends to the other Accounts. In small concerns, the Cash Account may still be kept in the Ledger, instead of being kept in a separate READING AND ELOCUTION.-XVI. ANALYSIS OF THE VOICE (continued). IX.-JUST STRESS THE next characteristic of good reading and speaking is just "stress." This word is meant to designate a peculiar modifica tion of force, which distinguishes speech from music. A longdrawn musical sound has its most forcible part-in consequence of "swell" and "diminish"-at the middle portion of the note. The tones of speech, on the contrary-although, in a few cases, they approach to this mode of voice-usually have the chief force of each sound at the opening or the closing part. In music, the increase of force is comparatively gradual; in speech and reading, it is frequently abrupt. To these distinctive modes of voice the term "stress" is applied. To understand the application of this term in detail, it becomes necessary to advert to the mode of creating vocal sounds. In vocal music the result is obtained by full "inspiration" (inhaling or drawing in the breath), and comparatively slight expiration" (giving forth the breath). In this mode, much breath is drawn in, much retained or withheld, and little given out at a time; and thus are produced those smooth, pure, and gradually-increasing tones which are appropriate to music-all the breath that is given forth being converted into sound, and none escaping that is not vocalised. In notes of very short duration, singing and speech are, it is true, brought nearer to a resemblance. But this resemblance is more apparent than real; as may be observed in the execution of every good singer, which, in the most rapid passages, still produces the genuine book called the Cash-Book; but this system we would by no means recommend. In the second entry above from the supposed Ledger, we have combined the former transaction with the present, in order to show how matters are settled between the Merchant and his Customer. The account of Robert Brown in the Ledger is now considered closed or balanced; and may be considered as struck off, unless he renews transactions with the Merchant by fresh purchases and subsequent payments. effect of song, as differing from speech. The resemblance is owing solely to the brevity of sound, in such cases, which does not afford time for broad and marked distinctions to be drawn by the ear. The modes of voice which constitute speech, or are exemplified in reading, are the following: I. RADICAL STRESS.-This form of force includes two modes -"explosion" and "expulsion." 1. "Explosion" is an abrupt and Instantaneous burst of voice --as, for example, in violent anger. This being an instinctive, unconscious, involuntary, impulsive emotion, does not allow time or disposition for any intentional or deliberate effect, but makes the creation of vocal sound seem an irrepressible, spontaneous, electric production of nature, lying equally out of the reach of the understanding and the will. This tone has its contrast in the deep, calm, and regular swell of the tone of reverence, or the ample volume, and deliberate force, of conscious authority and command, in which the speaker is self-possessed and self-directed, and controls his vocal effects for purposes understood or felt. Contrast, for instance, the following angry shout of Douglas when enraged by the defiance of Marmion, with the examples of reverential invocation and authoritative command which occur in the subsequent paragraphs. Example of "Explosion." UP DRAWBRIDGE! GROOM! What, WARDER, HO`! The sounds of all the accented vowels, in this style, fall upon the ear with an instantaneous, clear, sharp, abrupt, and cutting force, at the initial or "radical" part of each. 2. "Expulsion "-a conscious, intentional, and deliberate force, coming upon the ear with great power; as, for example, in the language of authoritative command. Example of Expulsion." Vanguard! to right and left the front unfold!" In this style, bold and forcible as it is, and even sudden as is its commencement, the accented vowels do not startle the ear with the abrupt shock of the tone of anger, exemplified above. There is a partial, though very brief, swell, perceptible in the "radical," or initial part of each sound. Both of the preceding examples are classed under the head of "radical" stress; as their chief force lies in the "radical," or first part of each sound. II. MEDIAL STRESS.-This mode of force is exhibited in 1. "Effusion”—a moderate, gentle, and gradual swelling of tone-as, for example, in the calm and tranquil utterance of reverential feeling, in which no disturbing impulse agitates or forces out the breath, but the voice, somewhat as in music, glides out, with a smooth effusive stream of sound, enlarging as it flows, but never bursting out into irregular violence. Example of "Effusion." But chiefly Thou, O Spirit! that dost prefer, Before all temples, the upright heart and pure, Instruct me, for thou knowest. 66 ex The "effusive" style avoids everything abrupt or sudden in the formation of sound, and swells gradually to its "acmé" (chief point), at the middle of each sound-in the manner of music; and from this point "diminishes," or decreases, to the close. This species of "stress" is accordingly denominated "medial," from the Latin word medius, the middle. 2. " Suppression "-a powerful force of "explosion" or pulsion," kept down in the very act of giving forth the voice, and converted into the "medial" form, as in the case of a person communicating, in great earnestness of feeling, with another, standing at a distance, and yet exceedingly anxious not to be heard by a third person, still further off; or, as in the tone of extreme earnestness, uttered by the watcher in the chamber of a sick person. Examples of "Suppression." Hark! James, listen! for I must not speak loud. I do not wish John to hear what I am saying! Step softly! speak low! make no noise! This mode of voice may be termed a "half whisper;" it is the "aspirated" and "impure" tone, which lies half way between the ordinary tone of the voice and a whisper. It is caused by allowing a vast quantity of breath, not "vocalised," to rush out along with the sound of the voice. It is, in fact, "explosion," or "expulsion," merged, as it were, or drowned in a stream of "aspiration," and made to assume the style of "medial stress." III. VANISHING STRESS.-Besides the "radical," or initial, and the "medial," or middle, "stress," there is also a "vanishing," or final "stress," which begins softly, swells onward, and bursts out suddenly, and leaves off abruptly, at the very close of a sound, as in the jerking termination of the tone of impatient feeling. Thus, in the language of maddened impatience, as uttered by Queen Constance, in her frenzy of grief and disappointment, at the overthrow of all her hopes for her son, in consequence of the peace formed between France and England: Example of "Vanishing Stress." War! war!-no peace: peace is to me a war! In tones of this class the voice withholds its force, and delays the explosion or expulsion till the last moment of the emphatic sound, and then throws it out with an abrupt, wrenching force, which resembles that of a stone suddenly jerked from the hand. This species of stress, as it lies at the "vanish," or last point of a sound, is termed the "vanishing stress." IV. COMPOUND STRESS.-The designation of "compound stress" is applied to that mode of forming tones which throws out the force of the voice in such a manner as to mark, with great precision, the "radical" and the "vanish," or the beginning and the end, of each accented or emphatic sound. Thus, in the tone of surprise, which is marked by a bold, "upward slide," beginning very low, and ending very high, the voice strikes with peculiar force on the first and last points of the slide, in order to stamp it more distinctly on the ear, as the vehicle of intense emotion. A striking example again occurs in the language of Queen Constance, in the situation mentioned before, when overwhelmed with astonishment at the news she has just received. Example of "Compound Stress." Gone to be married! gone to swear a peace! Gone to be friends! V. THOROUGH STRESS.-This designation is applied to that species of force which marks all the forms of "stress"-"radical," "medial," and "vanishing "—with intense power, on the same sound, so as to cause the character of all to be deeply felt, as in a bold shout, or any other very impressive form of voice, which indicates intense emotion. Example of "Thorough Stress." In this shout of the arch-fiend to his fallen host, the tone, it will be perceived, is not that of mere volume or quantity, of mere loudness or physical force, as in the mechanical act of calling, or the voice of a public crier. It has the wide "falling inflection" of authority and command, and the forcible "radical' stress and "expulsive" utterance of courage; and to preserve the effect of all these, it must not only begin and close vividly, but exhibit a "medial" "swell," and a distinct "vanish.” It must, in other words, give distinctive force and character to the beginning, the middle, and the end of each accented sound. VI. INTERMITTENT STRESS, OR TREMOR.-The "tremor," (trembling) or "intermittent" stress, takes place in the utterance of all those emotions which enfeeble the voice, by their overpowering effect on feeling; as, for example, in fear and characterises also the feeble voice of age, or the tone of a grief, and sometimes joy, when extreme. This mode of utterance person shivering with cold. Examples of the former will be found in the section on "Expressive Tones." Of the latter we have instances in the language both of the old woman and the farmer in Wordsworth's ballad, "Goody Blake and Harry Gill." LESSONS IN GEOMETRY-XVI. PROBLEM XXXVIII.-To describe a circle which shall touch three given straight lines. Let X, Y, Z (Fig. 57) represent the three given straight lines; it is required to draw a circle touching the three given straight lines X, Y, Z. If the given straight lines do not form a triangle, let them be produced both ways, if necessary, until they form the triangle A B C, as shown by the dotted lines in the figure. Bisect the angle A B C by the straight line B D, and the angle A C B by the straight line CD, and let these lines intersect in the point D. Then from the point D draw D E per pendicular to B C, and from D as a centre, with the radius DE, describe the circle E F G. The circle E F G touches the given straight lines X, Y, Z in the points E, F, G. The result would be the same no matter what two angles of the triangle are bisected in order to obtain the point D, or to what side of the triangle a perpendicular is drawn from D in order to obtain the radius of the required circle, as shown in the figure. Y Fig. 57. E By this problem we are taught how to inscribe a circle in any given triangle, the construction adopted being precisely the |
