SYENE, NOW CALLED ASSOUAN, ON THE NILE. ginian admiral, with the thirty thousand persons whom he had on board his vessels, is acknowledged to be authentic; opinions only differ as to the point where his maritime course terminated. Some will have it that, after having cleared the Pillars of Hercules, he went as far as the Gulf of Guinea, while others limit his exploratory voyage to the mouth of the Senegal river. Gosselin fixes the limit at Cape Nun. Pytheas, a citizen of Marseilles, performed a voyage to the north before the time of Alexander the Great. He discovered Albion, or Great Britain, and always sailing in a northern direction, he reached the mysterious place called Ultima Thule, which he saw covered with ice, enveloped in mist, and, as it were, immersed in a horrible chaos. But what was Thule? This is a question which has puzzled all historians and geographers. Some have considered with good reason that this country was Jutland or the coasts of Norway called Thulemark; or perhaps Iceland, as Pytheas sailed through the Scandinavian seas, and his remarks relating to the coasts of the Baltic have been acknowledged exact. Others have claimed this appellation for the Shetland Isles on the north of Scotland. Aristotle, the great Greek philosopher and naturalist, maintained that the earth was of a spherical form, and he even stated the measure of its circumference at 400,000 stadia (a Greek itinerary measure, equal to about 600 feet). Indications of the existence of Madagascar have been noticed in his writings. As to Ceylon, he mentions it under the name of Taprobane, and that a long time before the age of Ptolemy. The limits of the world according to Aristotle were, on the east, the Indus; on the west, the Tartessus, or the Guadalquivir; on the north, the Riphaan Mountains, Albion, and Ierne (Ireland); on the south, Libya, in which he places the river Chremetes, which rises out of the same mountains as the Nile, in order to disembogue itself into the Atlantic Ocean-an idea which leads to the supposition that he confounded the Nile with the Niger. He admitted that the Caspian Sea was a great inland lake, having no communication with any other sea. The conquests of Alexander the Great led to the most distinct and extended notions of the ancient world. The most remarkable geographical fact of his reign was the exploration of the Indus. A fleet of 800 vessels, under the command of Nearchus, descended this river, and went along the coast of Asia to the bottom of the Persian Gulf. The expedition of Alexander opened the eyes of the Greeks, but produced at that time no results of any consequence to the science of geography. What was gained by his exploratory voyage was lost by the dismemberment of his empire; and the historians of the period relapsed into their former ignorance. By degrees, however, geography assumed the dignity of a science. Eratosthenes, who flourished about 250 B.C., composed a treatise on the subject. He was a native of Cyrene in Africa, and the keeper of the Alexandrian Library. By means of instruments erected in the museum of the city of Alexandria, he found the obliquity of the ecliptic, to within half a degree of the truth. He was the first who attempted to determine the circumference of the earth by the actual measurement of an arc of one of its great circles. By means of sun-dials he found that Syene, near a cataract of the Nile, which was situated, as he thought, on the same meridian as Alexandria, was immediately under the tropic of Cancer, so that at the time of the summer solstice the sun was vertical to the inhabitants of Syene, and the gnomon had no shadow at noon. Thus, having measured the angle of the shadow of the gnomon at Alexandria, also at the time of the summer solstice, he found the distance of the sun from the zenith at noon to be 7° 12', or one-fiftieth part of the circumference of a great circle, viz., 360°. He then computed the distance between the two places, Alexandria and Syene, and found it 5,000 stadia. Accordingly, he multiplied this number by 50, and found the measure of the earth's circumference to be 250,000 stadia. Making allowance for the errors which he committed, for want of the delicate instruments of observation which we possess in modern times, this was a tolerable approximation to the truth. Syene, indeed, was not on the same meridian as Alexandria, but on one nearly 3° east of the meridian of that city; and instead of being exactly on the tropic, it was about half a degree north of that line. Eratosthenes affirmed the spherical figure of the earth, and asserted that the immensity of the ocean would not prevent vessels from going to India by continually shaping their course westward. Hipparchus, who flourished about ninety years later than Eratosthenes, laid the foundation of astronomical geography by endeavouring to determine the latitudes and longitudes of places by observations on the heavenly bodies. He constructed a catalogue of the fixed stars, and taught the projection of the sphere on a plane surface. Agatharchides, president of the Alexandrian Library, who flourished rather before Hipparchus, wrote a treatise on the navigation and commerce of the Red Sea, and an account of Egypt and Ethiopia. He was the first who gave a correct description of the Abyssinians; he mentions the gold mines wrought by the ancient kings of Egypt on the coast of the Red Sea, the process of working them, and the sufferings of the miners. He speaks, also, of the tools of copper found in these mines, supposed to have been used by the native Egyptians before the conquest of that country by the Persians. The voyages of Eudoxus of Cyzicus added new information to what was already gained respecting the East. He visited Egypt in the reign of Ptolemy Physcon, about 130 B.C.; and besides making two voyages to India, he afterwards accomplished the circumnavigation of the African continent. Strabo, who gives an account of his voyages and discoveries, attempts repeatedly to throw discredit on the truth of his statements; but they have been confirmed by those of later times. LESSONS IN FRENCH.-IIL SECTION 1.-FRENCH PRONUNCIATION (continued). 32. A, a.-Name, ah; sound, like the letter a in the English, word mark. Pronounce this English word mark aloud several times, with strict reference to the sound of the French letter a, until you are sure of having its correct sound. The sound thus obtained always belongs to the French letter! in the alphabet; that is, whenever the French alphabet is repeated, always give the first letter the sound of a in the English, word mark, that is, ah. This vowel is sometimes under a grave accent, thus-à là, voilà; but its sound is not materially affected thereby. 33. Â, â.-Under the circumflex accent, this vowel has the long sound represented by a in the English word mark, and is named ah. It has, besides, a little more than the sound just spoken of, for the sound must be prolonged, and to do this conveniently, the mouth must be opened a little wider than in uttering its short sound, represented by a in the English word fat. Be careful, however, not to pronounce A 4 like the sound of the English word are, but give it the sound of ah prolonged, in the following examples, namely :— and thus you have the sound of the vowel e, which deserves the greatest attention, because of its importance in the French language. It is used more than any other letter, namely:-in five different ways, and hence it has five different names, namely:⚫ silent, e mute or unaccented, é acute, è grave, é circumflex. 35. E, e, SILENT.-When final, and unaccented in words of more than one syllable, e is silent, as in the following words : 1 Algarade | Approche A-teekl But the French a does not always and invariably have this Article sound whenever and wherever it is used in a French word. Its sound depends upon its position in a word, and upon the accent under which it is placed, either by itself, as constituting a single word, or within a word of one or more syllables. The letter a has, then, another sound, which we illustrate by the sound of the letter a in the English word fat. Pronounce this English word fat aloud several times, with strict reference to the sound of the French letter a, until you are sure of having its correct sound. The French letter a has, therefore, two distinct sounds, viz.:- In these lessons, the English letter a will be used to illustrate the short sound of the French vowel a; and ah will be used to illustrate the long sound of the French vowel a. A has the short sound represented by a in the English word fat, when it is a word by itself, and generally when it begins or ends a French word. There are exceptions to this rule; but they will be readily noticed by the reader in the spelling by means of English letters, designed to illustrate the pronunciation of a given French word. A has the long sound represented by a in the English word mark, when it is pronounced as the first letter of the French alphabet, and also when under the circumflex accent, which will be illustrated hereafter. Exercise yourself upon the a, in the following examples. the following table aloud, and, French lessons aloud:FRENCH. PRON. ENGLISH. short sound of the French vowel FRENCH PROX. ENGLISH. The above examples are introduced to illustrate the short sound of the French vowel a. In the first word (abaca), be careful not to pronounce it ay-bay-kay, but give each a in each syllable the sound of a in the English word fat. In the next word, do not say ay-lahrm; remember to give the sound of a in the English word fat. Trill the r in the last syllable of the word a-larm. It will be perceived the final e of this word (a-larme) is not sounded. Ballotte Killing. Spek-ta-kl Sight. Approach. Spectacle Celui Prierai Suh-lah. Pree-ray. RÉSUMÉ OF EXAMPLES. Avez-vous quelque chose? Votre sœur a-t-elle faim ou soif? Mon ami n'a ni sommeil ni peur. Is anything the matter with you? He is neither cold nor warm. My friend is neither sleepy nor afraid. I have neither milk nor wine. 1. Qui a sommeil? 2. Mon frère a faim, mais il n'a pas sommeil. 3. Avez-vous raison ou tort? 4. J'ai raison, je n'ai pas tort. 5. Avez-vous le bon fusil de mon frère? 6. Je n'ai pas le fusil. 7. Avez-vous froid aujourd'hui ? 8. Je n'ai pas froid; au contraire, j'ai chaud. 9. Avez-vous de bon pain? 10. Je n'ai pas de pain. 11. N'avez-vous pas faim? 12. Je n'ai ni faim ni soif. 13. Avez-vous honte ? 14. Je n'ai ni honte ni peur. 15. Avons-nous du poivre ou du sel? 16. Vous n'avez ni poivre ni sel. 17. Quel livre avez-vous? 18. J'ai le livre de mon cousin. 19. Avez-vous le marteau de fer ou le marteau d'argent ? 20. Je n'ai ni le marteau de fer ni le marteau d'argent, j'ai le marteau de bois du ferblantier. 21. Avez-vous quelque chose? 22. Je n'ai rien. 23. Avez-vous le gros livre da libraire ? 24. Je n'ai ni le gros livre du libraire, ni le petit livre du menuisier ; j'ai le bon livre du capitaine. EXERCISE 10. 1. Are you sleepy, Sir? 2. No, Sir, I am not sleepy, but I am hungry. 3. Have you pepper or salt? 4. I have neither pepper nor salt; I have cheese. 5. Is your brother thirsty or hungry? 6. My brother is neither thirsty nor hungry. 7. Is your sister right or wrong? 8. She is not wrong, she is right. 9. Is the good joiner afraid? 10. He is not afraid, but ashamed. 11. Have you milk or cheese? 12. I have neither milk nor cheese; I have butter. 13. Have you the fine cloth or the good tea? 14. I have neither the fine cloth nor the good tea. 15. Is anything the matter with you, my good friend? 16. Nothing is the matter with me, my good Sir. 17. Have you no bread? 18. Yes, Madam, I have good bread, good butter, and good cheese. 19. Is the carpenter sleepy? 20. The car penter is not sleepy, but the tinman is hungry. 21. Have you the tinman's wooden hammer? 22. I have not his wooden hammer. 23. Which hammer have you? 24. I have the steel 25. Have you a good cloth coat? 26. No, Sir, but I have a silk dress. 27. Has the tailor the good gold button? 28. Yes, Sir, he has the good gold button. hanmer. SECTION VIL-PRONOUNS AND PRONOMINAL ADJECTIVES. 1. The pronouns le, him, it; la, her, it, are, in French, placed before the verb.* These pronouns assume the gender of the noun which they represent. Voyons-nous la fourchette? f., Do you see the knife? Do we see the fork? 6. The possessive pronouns le mien, m., la mienne, f., mine; le tien, m., la tienne, f., thine; le sien, m., la sienne, f., his or The article preceding hers, can never be prefixed to nouns. these pronouns, and forming an indispensable part of them, takes the gender of the object possessed; mien, tien, sien, vary for the feminine-nôtre and vôtre used as pronouns have the circumflex accent. 1. Avez-vous la fourchette d'argent? 2. Oui, Monsieur, je l'ai. 3. Le cuisinier a-t-il le bœuf ? 4. Non, Monsieur, il ne 6. J'ai le bon mouton et l'a pas. 5. Quel mouton avez-vous ? le bon veau de boucher. 7. Votre parent a-t-il la commode? 8. Non, Monsieur, il ne l'a pas. 9. A-t-il mon poisson ? 10. Qui a tout le biscuit du boulanger? 11. Le matelot n'a ni son pain ni son biscuit. 13. Il n'a ni son couteau ni sa fourchette, il a son assiette. (R. 4.) 14. Quel plat a-t-il ? 15. Il a le joli plat de porcelaine. 16. Avez-vous le mien ou le sien ? 17. Je n'ai ni le vôtre ni le sien, j'ai le nôtre. 18. Avez-vous peur, Monsieur ? 19. Non, Madame, je n'ai pas peur, j'ai faim. 20. Quelqu'un a-t-il ma montre d'or? 21. Non, Monsieur, personne ne l'a. 22. Qu'avezvous, Monsieur? 23. Je n'ai rien. 12. A-t-il son couteau et sa fourchette ? EXERCISE 12. 1. Have you the silver pencil-case? 2. No, Sir, I have it not. 4. Yes, Madam, I have it. 3. Have you my brother's plate? 2. The vowel of the pronouns le and la is elided before a verb 5. Has the butcher the good biscuit? 6. He has it not; he commencing with a vowel or an h mute [§ 146]. has the good beef, the good mutton, and the good veal. 7. Have you my knife and my fork ?* 8. I have neither your knife nor your fork. 9. Who has the good sailor's biscuit? 10. The baker has it, and I have mine. 11. Have you mine also? 12. I have neither yours nor his. 13. Are you hungry? * The possessive adjective must in French be repeated before every noun [§ 21 (4)]. 14 I am not hungry, I am thirsty and sleepy. 15. Are you not ashamed ? 16, No, Sir, I am not ashamed, but I am cold. 17. Is your relation right or wrong? 18. My relation is right, Sir. 19. Has he my china dish or my silver knife? 20. He has neither your china dish nor your silver knife; he has your clona plate. 21. Has any one my silver pencil-case? 22. No ons has it, but your brother has your cloth coat. 23. Have you mine or his ? 24. I have yours. LESSONS IN DRAWING.—II. THE simple example of straight lines, as shown in Figs. 20, 21, 22, 28, will now claim the attention of the pupil; in these the positions of the lines must be indicated by points, marked in the examples by the letters a, b, c, d, etc., taking great care that their distances from, and their positions with regard to, each about to copy is composed; and he must also be exact in determining the relative position of the points in which these lines meet or intersect. When to these directions we have added the following-namely, that the learner must also carefully observe the lengths of the lines which form the angles, we have given in very few words the instructions that he chiefly requires to enable him to draw forms, such as ornamental scrolls, flowers, leaves, single figures, etc., in delineating which he can have no assistance whatever from the rules of linear perspective. Knowing from practical experience the necessity of repeating instructions whilst personally engaged in teaching, we trust the pupil will consider our repeating in various ways the more important and essential regulations which guide the mind, and consequently the hand, as intended to convey a deep impression of their importance. Before commencing a drawing it should invariably be the practice of the pupil, when he has placed his copy before him, other shall be correctly arranged before a line is drawn; let the letters be a guide as to the order of arrangement. For example, mark the distance between a and b (Fig. 20), taking care they shall be horizontally placed, and that c and d are respectively perpendicularly arranged under a and b. In drawing the line a e any number of points between a c may be placed, and so with regard to the line b d; e and ƒ must be placed so as to allow a straight line to be drawn between them to pass through c and d. The above remarks apply to Fig. 21. In Fig. 22, which is supposed to be a profile or side view of four steps, mark the line of the inclination of the steps-namely, the dotted line ab it will not be difficult to arrange the remainder of this subject, if the pupil has well practised the examples given in Figs. 20 and 21. In every example that the learner copies, he must examine and mark with care the character and extent of the angles or openings made by the meeting or intersection of any of the lines, whether tor curved, of which the example that he is I whether it be a drawing or the object itself, to look carefully over it for a few minutes, and examine its contours-that is, the bendings of the curves, and the forms which a combination of these curves present. By this close examination of the subJect his mind will receive such an impression of it that, as he comes to understand its form, first as a whole, and the details afterwards, the hand, which is only an instrument, will readily execute the suggestions which the mind has received. There are many who make the great mistake of supposing that the hand is to receive all the attention in training; on the contrary, let the mind fully understand the subject, and then the hand will need less practice in order to fulfil its requirements. In short, educate the mind, and the education of the hand will follow. Fig. 24, a purse, is almost entirely an example of curved lines, like the vine leaf (Figs. 18, 19), but in this there is more uniformity-that is, the opposite sides have a reversed resemblance to each other. The pupil must notice the position of a and b, c and d, also a and c, b and d, and so on, with every other angle or remarkable change which a line takes in its curvatare. Perhaps after this remark it will be better to leave the pupil to himself whilst copying this subject, as by this time he must be, we hope, able to anticipate much that would be only a repetition of the principles already laid down. - We have given a vine leaf as a further illustration of this method of arranging a drawing-that is, marking in its characteristic points and angles. (See Figs. 18 and 19). Fig. 18 is the first part of the work, which must be carried out as follows:Commence at some important and leading feature of the object, say the centre, at a; mark in b; observe the inclination of a to b; join a b; mark in c; also observe the distance of c from b; join a c. The line a de will be found not a direct line, d is the point where it varies; mark d first and e next; join a d and de; a fg is a similar line; also a hi. These are the great and leading characteristic lines and points, which it would be advisable to mark in the order we have written direct lines and curves, advising the pupil not to shade his drawings for the present, until he has gained sufficient confidence in outline. The value and importance of a correct and ready method of drawing the simple forms of objects cannot be over-estimated. He who is master of this enviable power can apply it to any branch of art he pleases. The greatest impediment to the progress of many a pupil is most likely to arise from his impatient desire to arrive, without a moment's delay, at the power of making a drawing. Irregular and misdirected efforts in copying drawings of cottages and stumps of trees appear to be a much more pleasant task than the performance of exercises so arranged as to lead the student from the knowledge of one principle to an acquaintance with another; nevertheless, the latter is essential to him who wishes to be master of drawing. The training of the hand and the eye which such exercises are calculated to impart, will make the copying of a large number them. The secondary parts are ik c, i mn, op g. The pointar and s, t and u, must be arranged with an eye to c, b, and e. These are the minor divisions, all of which must be respectively joined together by straight lines, or in some special cases by a curve, as from r to t, or v to e. Partially rub out the arrangement-that is, "faint it," and then draw the finished outline as in Fig. 19, which may be, in the detail, further "marked in," as the points 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, etc. Let the student compare both figures as he proceeds. As the above instructions apply to all flat objects, whether composed of straight or curved lines, we again urge most earnestly the strict observance of this practice, as so much depends upon it for the understanding and successfully carrying out of all that we shall have to advance hereafter in these lessons. We have added in Figs. 16 and 17, and some smaller copies in outline (which are without numbers, as there is no necessity to make any special reference to them in our remarks), a few examples for practice, of subjects in the flat, composed of of simple figures as easy as it is to make alphabetical characters by the conjunction of "straight strokes, pot-hooks, and hangers." The simple figures we are setting before the learner in these early lessons constitute in fact the alphabet of drawing, and with these, if he would make himself a sound draughtsman, he must become well acquainted; for just as the combination of letters, syllables, and words, forms in the printer's hands either a poem or an auctioneer's catalogue, so does the application of the elements of linear drawing constitute, in the hands of the artist, an historical picture, a portrait, a landscape, a design for an ornamental framework, or the plan and elevation of a building. Unacquainted with these elements, how much industry, and even talent, has many a youth thrown away! Let us take an instance of such a youth. He makes his earliest essays, it may be, at copying some finished production, or some elaborate engraving. He tries his best to produce a neat and accurate copy, and he endeavours to give the details of his original |