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under the units, the tens under the tens, the hundreds under the hundreds, and so on, thus :

9876

7653

2223

in the less taken from 6 units

5 tens
6 hundreds

7 thousands

proseworthy degree of patient labour; but when all is à me that he is able to do, his copy proves to be a failure in a me esserad points. It is out of proportion; the perspective ins se not given correctly; the curve-lines may not be zigme but they want the easy sweep of his exemplar; they are of showers and joints; and the perpendiculars are not me are the horizontal lines at right angles to them. 3 units Tam the first ardour of execution has abated, he perhaps disarmers these faults himself; and if he makes the common ILiGate of supposing that the art of drawing is a gift, and that the panel is a magician's wand, manifesting its powers only in the hand of some rightful owner, he may then lose heart, and tink that his faculties are not adapted for the pursuit of this antle at If any of our readers have unfortunately stopped its pret of their studies, let them recover their confidence, and posete their favourite pursuit under our guidance. The good method of practice, and the intelligible principles which we propose to explain and set before them, will so lead their hand and their eye, that ultimately they will accomplish all

ther desire.

Well-directed application does wonders in other arts, and why not in drawing? What exercises does not a musician or a singer starough, before he gets command of his voice or fingers? Who expects to arrive at that dazzling rapidity of motion visible

the touch of the violin-player, certain and instantaneous tongh it be, by any other method than that of hard and conwant practice? Would not he who should begin to learn the Le fazy instrument by attempting complete airs, and always suring ade from the exercises which a master prescribes, be are to end where he began, and become no player? Think wiat an amount of labour is necessarily expended in fingering by the young pianoforte-player. Greatly less labour than is zersary in prosecuting many other arts will make an able Grassman, fit him for the performance of many useful works, and imbue him with those principles of drawing which are agy cable throughout the whole range of this art.

it a frequently asserted that the art of drawing, like that of writing poetry, is a natural gift; and that unless you possess to you never can excel. It may be true that, to rise to the if great eminence in any science or art, requires a peculiar bent of the mind; but to acquire a useful practical knowledge of the arted drawing, it is by no means necessary that every one should tea genia. With regard to the sister arts-poetry and painting - may be truly said, in regard to their elements, at least, that every man is endowed with some ability for their acquisition to application. Every one, for instance, is poetical when be rynka on a subject with which he is well acquainted, or in when no ie deeply interested; and, in like manner, every one is en so, who is ready to make a sketch or a drawing of any went which he wishes to explain to another, when he finds text, anguage fails to convey his ideas. The art of drawing, tardom, may be attained to a sufficient extent for practical yryna by every one who exerts the necessary attention and vity. The artisan, the tradesman, or the connoisseur, may by the use of a few well-directed strokes of the pencil, convey a of his plans, operations, and views in relation to artistic prosvetiora, Á which the most laboured and elegant composition, wing of many hundred words, would fail to convey the text impression to the mind of the hearer or the reader.

LESSONS IN ARITHMETIC.-III.

SUBTRACTION,

1 Is a less number be taken away from a greater, or, as it is sas, ubtracted from it, the number left behind is called the ference of the two numbers, or the remainder.

(called minus) placed between two numbers tee that the one before which it stands is to be subtracted from the other.

2. When the individual figures composing the larger number wo rompectively larger than the corresponding figures of the waller number, the process is evident. We have only to take the differences of the numbers of units, tens, hundreds, etc., pectively, and the resulting number can be at once written Gown. Thus, for instance, suppose it be required to find the 65ff runce between 9876 and 7653.

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Thus, the difference is 2 thousands, 2 hundreds, 2 tens, and 3 units, or, as it is written, according to the rules of our notation

2223.

3. But suppose that the figures in the less number are not respectively less than the corresponding figure in the other number; we must then proceed somewhat differently.

The method we employ depends upon the following selfevident proposition, or

Axiom. If two numbers be increased by the same quantity, their difference will not be altered.

4. Suppose that it be required to subtract 4789 from 5231. Place the numbers, one under the other, as before

5231

4789

442

9 units in the less cannot be taken from 1 unit of the greater; add, however, 10 units to the 1 unit in the upper, and add 10 to the lower number by changing the 8 in the tens place into a 9. The numbers are now 5 thousands, 2 hundreds, 3 tens, and 11 units; and 4 thousands, 7 hundreds, 9 tens, and 9 units. Now, 9 units from 11 units leave 2 units.

Again, 9 tens cannot be taken from 3 tens, but if we increase the 3 in the tens place of the upper number by ten, and the 7 in the hundreds place in the lower by one, we shall be adding the same quantity (a hundred) to each number, since any figure indicates a number ten times as great as the same figure in a place immediately on its right.

Then 9 tens from 13 tens leave 4 tens.

Again, 8 hundreds cannot be taken from 2 hundreds, but if we increase the 2 in the hundreds place of the upper number by 10, and the 4 in the thousands place in the lower number by 1, we shall be adding the same quantity (a thousand) to each number, for the reason we have already mentioned above.

Then, 8 hundreds taken from 12 hundreds leave 4 hundreds. And 5 thousands from 5 thousands leave nothing.

Hence the difference of the numbers is 4 hundreds, 4 tens, and 2 units; that is, 442.

*5. The process may also be clearly exhibited as follows:5231 = 5 x 1000 + 2 x 100 + 3 x 10 + 1 4789 4 x 1000+ 7 x 100 + 8 x 10 + 9 The difference between these numbers is the same as the difference between

5 x 1000 + 12 x 100 + 13 x 10 + 11 and 5 x 1000 + 8 x 100 + 9 x 10 + 9

For we have added the same quantity to the original numbers, namely:

10 x 100+ 10 x 10 + 10 i.e., 1110 to the upper, and 1000+ 100 + 10 i.e., 1110 to the lower. The difference is clearly seen to be, therefore4 × 100 + 4 × 10 + 2

i.e., according to the principles of notation, 442. 6. From the above analysis of the process of subtraction will be perceived the truth of the following

Rule for Subtraction. Write the less number under the greater, so that units may stand under units, tens under tens, etc. Beginning at the right hand, subtract each figure in the lower number from the figure above it, and set down the remainder directly under the figure subtracted. When a figure in the lower number is larger than that above it, add 10 to the upper figure; then subtract as before, and add 1 to the next figure in the lower number.

Articles 5 and 7 may be omitted until after the lesson on Multi

down the numbers one under the other, the units plication has been read.

7. It may be remarked that, instead of adding 1 to the next figure of the lower number in a case where a figure is larger than the one standing above it, it would be the same thing to subtract 1 from the next figure of the upper number.

OUR HOLIDAY.—II.

GYMNASTICS.-I. THE BAG AND THE RING EXERCISES. It is an old and undisputed truth, though one which has frequently The truth of this will appear from exhibiting the process of been lost sight of, that no system of education is complete unless subtracting 4789 from 5231, as follows:

5231 = 5 x 1000 + 2 x 100 + 3 x 10 + 1

4789 = 4 x 1000 + 7 x 100 + 8 x 10 + 9

it provides for the development and strengthening of the bodily powers as well as the mental faculties. Physical training is, in fact, of as much importance as intellectual culture; and, for the

The difference of these will be the same as the difference of real welfare of the individual, the two should go hand in hand.

4 x 1000 + 11 x 100 + 12 x 10 + 11 and 4 × 1000 + 7 × 100 + 8 x 10 + 9

It is evidently

4 x 100 + 4 x 10+ 2, or 442.

Knowing this, the Greek sought strength as ardently as he strove for wisdom, and the Roman expressed his idea of human perfection in the phrase mens sana in corpore sano-" a sound mind in a sound body." It is our design, in our papers on Gymnastics, to give the student some assistance in the practice

Here we have not added anything to either number, but have of physical training, not only as a relief and diversion from his only arranged the upper one in a different form.

The process given in the first rule is the most convenient in practice.

The learner is recommended to analyse the process he uses in the first few examples which he attempts.

8. Tests of Correctness.—(1.) Add the remainder to the smaller number; if the result so obtained be equal to the larger number, the work may be presumed to be correct; for it is evident that the smaller number and the remainder are the two parts into which the larger number is divided.

(2.) Subtract the remainder from the greater of the two numbers; if the difference is equal to the less number, the working may be considered to be correct.

EXERCISE 5.

8. From 96531768 sub. 873625 9. From 10000000 sub, 999999 10. From 99999999 sub. 100000 11. From 83567000 sub. 438567 12. From 34200591 sub. 8888888 13. From 95246300 sub. 9438675

studies, but also as a means of acquiring vigour to pursue them with success. For the influence of the condition of the body upon the powers of the mind is well known, and it will frequently be found that one hour's physical effort in a right direction will do much to assist the scholar in his progress with his books.

Gymnastic training is designed to secure health and strength by the equal development and exercise of the limbs and muscles of the body. Some exercises are better adapted to this purpose than others, the best being those which bring the greater number of organs into play simultaneously; and the student should select for himself, or under the advice of an experienced friend, those which are best suited to his constitution and degree of physical strength. As in the present paper we shall describe only some of the simpler forms of gymnastics, we shall not have occasion now to mention any that may not be practised with advantage by all beginners; but the case may be otherwise with the more advanced exercises to be mentioned hereafter.

1. From 5843 subtract 2731 2. From 89879 sub. 78654 3. From 54903670 sub, 504089 4. From 9876102 sub. 1050671 5. From 4006723 subtract 5001 6. From 3601900 sub. 1000000 One never-failing principle to be observed in all these 7. From 2035024 sub. 27040 14. From 76854313 sub. 59798109 pursuits, if real advantage is sought to be gained by them, 15. From 123456789 subtract 12345678 16. From 2468759768 subtract 1123344567 17. From 1000000000 subtract 123456789 18. From 142857142857 subtract 42857142858 19. From 6764 + 3764 take 6500 + 2430 20. From 2890 + 8407 take 4251 + 3042 - 1735

21. From 8564

22. From 7561

2573 take 4431 -
2846 take 1734 + 2056

23. From 9687 -3401 take 3021 + 1754

24. What number is that to which 3425 being added, the sum will be 175250 ?

25. A man having 55000 pounds, paid 7520 pounds for a house, 3260 pounds for furniture, 2375 pounds for a library. How much had he left?

26. A man worth 163250 pounds bequeathed 15200 pounds apiece to his two sons, 16500 pounds to his daughter, to his wife as much as to his three children, and the remainder to an hospital. How much did his wife and how much did the hospital receive?

27. A man bought three farms: for the first he paid 5260 pounds, for the second 3585, and for the third as much as for the first two; he afterwards sold them all for 15280 pounds. How much did he gain or lose?

28. A jockey gave 150 crowns for a horse, and meeting an acquaintance, changed horses with him, giving 37 crowns to boot; meeting another he changed again, receiving 28 crowns to boot; he finally changed again, giving 78 crowns to boot, and then sold his last horse for 140 crowns. What did he lose? 29. Find the difference between every two successive numbers in the squares contained in Ex. 3 on Addition (page 23), taking care always to place the larger number uppermost-that is, for the minuend.

is that a violent or undue strain upon any portion of the body should always be avoided. The exercises should partake of the character of natural and graceful movements; they should proceed by easy gradations from the less to the more difficult; and when the gymnast is really fatigued they should cease at once. These principles we cannot too emphatically impress upon our readers. They should remember that more benefit is derived from moderate exertion than by excessive effort. The modern system of gymnastic training, which has done and is doing so much to make physical education popular and useful, is one of light gymnastics chiefly. Some of these exercises we proceed now to describe. We commence with that class of exercises which may be practised without implements or training of any kind. For these as well as for the higher gymnastics the best form of dress is a pair of loosely-fitting trousers or knickerbockers, fastened round the loins by a belt, and a flannel shirt. It is an advantage for the trousers as well as the shirt to be of flannel.

1. The first thing to be done is to acquire the habit of standing in an erect position. Place the legs close together, the heels touching, and the toes turned out at right angles. Hold the head well up, with the eyes looking straight in front; throw the shoulders back, and the chest well forward. Let the arms hang down the sides, the elbows and the little fingers touching the body, and the palms open to the front. Practise this position until it becomes easy and natural.

2. Next, from this position, bring the arms gradually forward, without bending the elbows, until they are level with the chest, and the points of the fingers meet. Then raise the extended arms above the head as far as you can in the form of a semicircle, bending the elbows as little as possible in the movement. Reverse these actions, bringing the arms back to the body as

30. Find the difference between a million and a thousand before. and one.

31. From 4850902 subtract 98998; from the remainder subtract the same number; and from every successive remainder subtract the same number, until a remainder at last be obtained from which it cannot be subtracted; and then, tell how many times the subtraction has been performed.

32. What is the difference between a hundred thousand and ten millions one thousand, and a hundred millions ten thousand and one?

3. Raise the arms until they are level with the shoulders; then bring them forward until the thumbs meet, and extend them somewhat rapidly back as far as possible, still without bending the elbows. The constant practice of this simple exercise will do much to expand the chest.

4. Practise the same movement, making the palms of the hands meet behind the back each time.

5. Starting from the erect position, bring the arms together with the fingers pointing to the ground; then, keeping the arın

and legs perfectly straight, bend the body forward, with the head towards the ground, and touch the feet with the points of the fingers. When this can be done with ease, touch the floor in the same position. This will be difficult at first, but it will soon be accomplished with a little practice.

6. Place the arms "akimbo;" that is, with the elbows out and the hands resting on the hips. Sink down to the floor until you sit upon your heels, and then rise to the erect position. Repeat this several times in succession.

7. Bring the right arm level with the shoulder; then throw it back, and whirl it round at full length from the body. Exercise the left arm and shoulder in the same way. Then begin by throwing the arm forward, and whirl it as before. Practise the same movements with both arms simultaneously.

8. With the hands on the hips, raise each knee as high as you can, keeping the other leg perfectly straight. Then extend each leg sideways as far as possible, remaining a few seconds in that position.

9. Hop on one foot several times successively, then on the other, keeping the body erect.

These exercises will do much for the beginner in gymnastics, and will also suggest others of a similar description which he may practise with advantage.

We would remark here that the importance of regular walking exercise as a means of strengthening the frame and keeping the system in health must not be lost sight of, in the attention given to purely gymnastic pursuits. No exercise is more salutary in its effects, and it has the additional recommendation of taking the pedestrian into the fresh air, which is as necessary to the preservation of life and health as a proper supply of food.

We now come to the various kinds of gymnastic exercises which are practised with the aid of apparatus, and will mention first those which require only the simplest appliances, but are still of high utility. For the introduotion of two of these Fig. 2. we are indebted to an American physician, Du Do Lowis, who has bestowed great attention on gymnastics from a physiological point of view, and whose teaching and patusplus are being widely adopted in Europe as well as in These are the Bag and the Ring exercises, which we

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Thu thug Exorcises, which may be used in families with great melb, acu punctisod simply with bags filled with beans, the biota to making which are given as follows by Dr. Lewis :--The musterial is a strong bed ticking. Bags for young children halk bon buform sowing, movon tuchos square; for ladies, nine index, fur la tios and gentlemen exercising together, ten inches; Now them with strong linen nblumen alone, twelve muchos 11% plecond, doubled, neatly three quarters of an inch from ba, loayling a small openingg at one corner to pour in the Til the bags three quarters full, and they are ready for Hu ost daily, onde tu two weeks they should be emptied Added To allow them to be played with after they are Eis prolly sure to furnish much dust for the lungs of the auds and clothes. There cannot be ard to this point of cleanliness. st time they should bo rinsed a quite clean, when they must wo afterwards this cleansing

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through which the bags may be thrown. This, however, is not necessary, although it tends to increase the interest of the players in the exercise.

The design of the exercise is to give freedom to the muscles of the chest and arms, and promote a healthy movement of the body generally. For this purpose the bags are thrown from one player to the other, in a variety of positions, which may be left in some measure to their own taste and inclination, provided it be remembered, as a rule, to keep the legs perfectly straight, the body upright, and the chest well thrown forward. This position is exemplified in Fig. 1. Standing thus, the bag may be thrown first with the right arm, then with the left, then with left and right alternately; now, with both hands brought back behind the neck, throw the bag over the head; or, with the bag in the right hand, throw it from behind round the left arm, which is kept straight to the body; throw with the left hand in the same manner; and so on. Fig. 2 represents a more difficult position, from which the bag is thrown over the head. This will come easy to the learner with a little practice.

Fig. 3.

We pass on now to the Ring Exercises, which have received very high eulogium, and prove highly amusing as well as bene. ficial to the players. The ring is made of wood, usually cherry, and is one inch in thickness and six inches in diameter. This is sufficient to enable two persons to grasp it and use it with freedom. All the ring exercises are for two players, who should be of equal or nearly equal strength. Two rings are required in the course of the exercises, each player grasping one in either hand. The rings should be well polished. They are inexpensive articles, being sold occasionally as low as one shilling per pair; and any wood-turner will supply them at a little more than this sum.

We give two figures as examples of the exercises that may be practised with either one or both hands. In the first, the players, standing in the position shown in Fig. 3, both pull hard with the right hand, and draw the right arm from right to left and from left to right; afterwards performing the same movements with the ring held in their left hands. Remember to keep the head well up and the shoulders back, with the feet placed at right angles, in all these movements. In the second example, the players first stand back to back, with the rings held downwards; then each lunges forward with the right leg, and the hands are raised over the head, as shown in Fig. 4. They return to the back-to-back position, and step forward with the left leg in the same manner.

Fig. 4.

Among other ring exercises may be mentioned the following: The players, standing face to face, and with one foot well advanced, the other thrown back, both pull with one hand and push with the other, alternately; one arm thus being extended to its full length, and the other drawn back as far as possible, at each movement. Then, standing in the same way, draw back with both arms, your partner pushing his as far forward as he can, and each doing this alternately. Standing in an erect position, each raise one hand and lower the other as far as possible, being careful not to bend the elbows. Raise and lower the arms alternately from the position represented in Fig. 4.

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HISTORIC SKETCHES.-II. THOMAS À BECKET AND THE CONSTITUTIONS OF CLARENDON. It was a grand scene that presented itself in Westminster Hall when, in the spring of the year 1163, King Henry II. met Thomas à Becket, Archbishop of Canterbury, and the rest of the bishops of England. On the one side appeared, in all the pomp and magnificence of prelates of the Roman Church, the whole of the representatives of spiritual power in the country; on the other appeared, in an equally magnificent simplicity, the highest representative of the temporal power. Church and State were confronted. Why?

The king had a question to ask the bishops, one in which not he only, nor the people living at the time, but we also, had a keen personal interest; and in order that he might get their collective answer at one and the same time, he bade them meet him at Westminster in a body. The question he had to ask was very simple, but also very important: "Would the bishops conform to the law and ancient customs of the land, or would they not?" Timely warning had been given to the bishops of the nature of the question to be asked, and, under the guidance of the Archbishop of Canterbury, they had framed an answer. They would observe the law and the ancient customs of the realm, saving their own order. Only one prelate, Hilary, Bishop of Chichester, was found to give an unqualified answer in the affirmative, and for doing so he received the warm upbraidings of the primate.

Henry, who thought by putting a straightforward question to get an equally straightforward answer, was exceedingly disgusted at the trick of the primate, which left the whole matter as much at large as it had been before the meeting. In vain he tried to change the mind of the bishops; and, baffled in his hope of binding them by their own admissions, he left the hall in a rage, and determined to take other means of bringing them to

VOL. I.

submission. To submission! But in what were the bishops opposed to him? What law or ancient custom of the kingdom had they disregarded? What need was there to summon them to Westminster, and to catechise them so severely? Above all, what harm was there in the saving clause inserted by the prelates in their answer, that it should so greatly incense the king? Let us see.

For many years the clergy had been striving to effect in England what they had actually effected in other countries-an independence of the civil courts, and a recognition of their superiority above the civil power. Steadily they worked towards the attainment of these great objects, their doctrine of the superiority of the spiritual over the temporal power ultimately blooming out into an assertion of right even to depose princes, and to absolve subjects from their allegiance. As yet this monstrous claim had not been advanced in England, but steps were being taken which were meant to lead up, and actually did lead up, to it. With some show of colour, perhaps, the clergy claimed that all questions of right to present to ecclesiastical benefices should be tried in the ecclesiastical courts. They also claimed that, as guardians of property which was held for religious purposes, they should not be taxed nor be compelled to do military service, whether in kind or by commutation, nor should they be obliged to sit with laymen in the grand council of the kingdom-that was to say, a House of Lords. The deans and chapters of cathedrals claimed the sole and exclusive right to elect the bishop of their see; privilege of sanctuary both to person and property was claimed for all churches and churchyards; and the clergy also asserted the unquestioned right to excommunicate whomsoever they pleased. These and certain other privileges, of which the tendency was to render clerks in holy orders independent of the state, were not, though pertinaciously advanced, sufficient to arouse the resolute opposition of Henry II. There were two other claims of the churchmen

which, if once allowed would not only have made the clergy tite mücpendent, but would have given them the opportunity and the means of wooly raverting the kingly power. They saic that if a man extracted with another to do a thing, and confirmed his promise by an oath, the fact that the oath was binding only on the cinstense gave them jurisdiction, and in this way they drew before the spiritual courts many questions of ordmary corrame, taputes about which ought rightly to have been tried in the hngs courts of law, which were open to all comers, and from which an appeal lay to the king himself. The last and most important of the clerical claims, however, was that with weertei that no clergyman could be brought to trial in the king's courts, civil or criminal, for any breach of agree ment, however grows, or for any crime, however heinous. If a Clerk was accused of crime, and was arraigned before the king's dres, the bishop of the diocese in which the prisoner dwelt ent an order to the jige, notifying him that the man was in or lers, and requiring him to surrender the fellow to the bishop's CLICT. When brought before the spiritual court the prisoner was often allowed to clear himself on his simple oath, uncorroborated by any witness, to the effect that he had not done that of which he was accused. If he confessed, or if the case was clearly proved against him, he was put to penance, sometimes he was put in prison, and sometimes-but rarely-he was degraded from his ecclesiastical rank. In this way crimes of the most abominable kind, and which, if committed by laymen, were punishable with death, were done with comparative impunity when clerks were the offenders. Nor was this all. By means of an absurd text, persons who were not, nor ever meant to be, in holy orders, were admitted to the "benefit of clergy." Ability to read or write, no matter how imperfectly, was taken to be of itself sufficient proof that a man was a clerk, so that a layman arraigned before the king's justices had only to show that he could read or write what was afterwards appropriately called "the neck verse," and he was forthwith handed over to the ordinary to be put to his purgation in the ecclesiastical court.

This monstrous immunity, with its yet more monstrous abuses, was like the last straw that broke the camel's back.. So flagrantly unjust was it, both in principle and practice, that all honest men were indignant, and cried aloud for some check upon it. The king, who was by means of it and the other pretended rights of the clergy gradually ceasing to be master in his own dominions, resolved to apply a curb, and to wipe away the scandal. From the time when he mounted the throne in 1154 he had striven to restrain the power of the clergy, and, aided by the clear head and bold hand of his bosom friend Thomas à Becket, had striven not unsuccessfully. Great had been the wrath poured on Becket's head when, as Lord Chancellor of England, he had made havoc altogether of many a pet clerical abuse. Under the idea that he would continue the same policy in a sphere where that policy would have the largest possible scope, Henry offered Becket the archbishopric of Canterbury when that see was vacant in 1161. Becket, it must in fairness be admitted, was very averse to accept the offer, and for thirteen months held out a persistent refusal. Finally, how ever, he yielded to the carnest solicitations and orders of the king, and was duly installed as Primate at Canterbury.

To the surprise of all men, and to the infinite disgust of the king, Becket from the day of his consecration pursued a totally new course to that he had formerly taken. Nowhere was there so bold an asserter of clerical rights, nowhere a more untiring worker on behalf of the power of the Church. He claimed lands which had once belonged to the see of Canterbury, but which had long been independent and in laymen's hands; he excommunicated the owner of an advowson for ejecting a priest who had been presented by himself; he asserted the right of the spiritual courts to inquire into questions of contract confirmed by oath; and in every respect he proved himself

• Excommunication was the expulsion of a man, by the highest ecclesiastical authority, from the communion of Christian men. The rights and comforts of the Church were refused to the excommunicated; the sacraments were not allowed to be administered to him; he was reckoned accursed; and, in times of superstition, he was sup posed to be eternally lost if he died without absolution. Excommunication was the great weapon of ecclesiastics, and it was a powerful one in the age of ignorance and moral darkness.

A

to be the exact opposite of what Henry had looked for in him. The case which induced the king to try conclusions with Becket and the clerical party was an exceedingly gross one. priest in Worcestershire had violated a gentleman's daughter, and afterwards murdered her father. When the scoundrel was about to be brought to trial before the king's justices, Becket claimed him as a clerk, and getting possession of him, degraded him from his priest's office, and then insisted that he could not be tried again in the king's court for the same offence. These were the circumstances under which King Henry summoned the bishops to Westminster; and the meaning of the words "saving our own order" is sufficiently clear. Henry left the hall in a rage, but it was not an impotent one. By promises, by threats, by various means, he detached most of the prelates from their primate, and he won over the Archbishop of York by significant hints about the next incumbent of the see of Canterbury. Last to give in was Becket, who yielded only to the universal pressure brought to bear upon him, and repented as soon as he had assented. But repentance or no repentance, he did assent, and with the rest of the prelates professed his willingness to observe "the ancient customs of the kingdom which did not recognise the clerical claims-and to withdraw the saving clause.

Henry knew with whom he had to deal. He knew that a confession of this sort was quite useless unless it could be embodied in some visible instrument. Taking advantage of his success, of the schism in the Papacy (there were at this time two Popes, one at Rome, the other in France, and Henry played off cae against the other), and of the resolute support of the barons, who were only too glad to give the spiritual lords a kick down, Henry summoned the primate and all the bishops to meet him at Clarendon, a village in Wiltshire, and there, being backed, like Stephen de Langton on a later occasion, by "the whole nobility of England," he required their sworn assent to what have been called the Constitutions of Clarendon.

The "Constitutions" were dreadfully hard eating for the bishops, divesting them as they did of nearly all their invidious privileges, some of which it must be confessed were sanctioned by those "ancient customs" which the king had sworn the bishops to observe. Suits concerning advowsons and rights of presentation were to be decided in the civil courts; no clerk, no matter of what rank, was to quit the kingdom without the royal permission; the pretended right to try questions of contracts made on oath was to be renounced; excommunicated persons were not to be made to find security for their residence in any appointed place; laymen were not to be tried in spiritual courts except by approved good witnesses; no chief tenant of the crown to be excommunicated without the king's assent; the final appeal in all spiritual causes to be in the king; prelates to be regarded as barons of the realm, and to be taxed accordingly; bishops not to be elected without the royal assent; the privilege of sanctuary to be curtailed; and clerks accused of any crime to be tried in the king's courts, like other men.

The Great Council of the barons unanimously approved the Constitutions, and, sour as the food was, all the prelates, except the primate, swore to accept it "legally, with good faith, and without fraud or reserve." Becket was resolute, though alone; friends as well as foes besieged his constancy, still he held out; and it was not till Richard de Hastings, Grand Prior of the Templars, a man who seldom bent his knee, even in prayer, went down on his knees and besought him, that he gave in. Unwillingly, and in hope of getting the Pope to annul his oath, he swore like the rest to accept the Constitutions "with good faith, and without fraud or reserve."

Pope Alexander reed to ratify the treaty; he released all who had sworn from their oaths, and threatened to cxcommunicate everybody who should try to support the king's demands. A long trial of strength ensued. Becket got over to France, and plotted there against his former friend; Henry took the revenues of the hostile bishops into his own hands, and by dint of perseverance managed to keep the clergy in check; and it is probable he would have done very much more than he did had it not been for the brutal murder of Thomas à Becket, which was a blunder as well as a crime.

In the autumn of 1170 Becket had returned to Canterbury, nominally reconciled to the king; but the old question-which should be the greater-being revived, Henry is reported to have said in a hasty moment, "Is there not one of those who eat my

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